Table 3.
Analysis of studies exploring chemical contamination. This table details the specific chemical contaminants that were analysed and sought within each of the eight papers exploring chemical contamination. It provides additional details regarding the samples/concentrations in which certain identified chemicals were found.
| Citation | Paper title | Chemicals tested for | Relevant details from the study |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aceti et al. (2021) | Exposure to perfluoroalkyl substances through human milk in preterm infants | PFAs | Amount of PFASs in 10 preterm and 10 DHM samples was evaluated and estimated daily intake (EDI) was calculated. Median EDI was 6.4–28.96 ng/kg/day. |
| Escuder‐Vieco et al. (2016) | Breast milk and hair testing to detect illegal drugs, nicotine and caffeine in donors to a human milk bank | Nicotine, caffeine, morphine, cocaine, cannabis, amphetamines, codeine, methadone and derived substances | 36 donors were tested. Nicotine and cotinine were found in 33.3% of the hair samples and no mention was made of these substances in the DHM samples. However, the researchers warn that high levels of smoke exposure found in hair may be correlated with infant health effects from donor's milk. Caffeine was found in 50% of the DHM samples (18 of 36 donors). |
| Oliveira et al. (2020) | Essential and toxic elements in human milk concentrate with human milk lyophilizate: A preclinical study | Aluminium, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, iron, mercury, manganese, nickel, lead, selenium, tin and thallium | Tested by inductively coupled plasma‐mass spectrometry (ICP‐MS). Upon donated breast milk direct lyophilization, manganese (+0.80 μg/L) and selenium concentration (+6.74 μg/L) increased while lead concentration (−6.13 μg/L) decreased. |
| Serrano et al. (2021) | Concentrations of perfluoroalkyl substances in donor breast milk in Southern Spain and their potential determinants | PFAs | PFAs identified in 24%–100% of the DHM samples. PFHpA was detected in 100% of samples, followed by PFOA (84%), PFNA (71%), PFHxA (66%) and PFTrDA (62%). Perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) was detected in 34% of donors. Media PFA concentration in donors was 87.67 ng/L. |
| van den Berg et al. (2017) | WHO/UNEP global surveys of PCDDs, PCDFs, PCBs and DDTs in human milk and benefit‐risk evaluation of breastfeeding | Polychlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and the sum of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (ΣDDTs) | Levels of PCDDs and PCDFs were highest in India, parts of Europe and parts of Africa. PCB levels were highest in East and West Europe. High ΣDDTs were found in less industrialised countries. |
| Barbarossa et al. (2013) | Perfluoroalkyl substances in human milk: A first survey in Italy | PFAs including perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) | Measured concentrations ranged between 15 and 288 ng/L for PFOS and between 24 and 241 ng/L for PFOA. |
| Hartle et al. (2018) | Chemical contaminants in raw and pasteurised human milk | 23 chemicals including the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) | 19 of 23 tested chemicals appeared in the prepasteurized milk samples and 18 of 23 tested chemicals appeared in the postpasteurized milk samples of this study. Pasteurisation did not affect the presence of most of the chemicals. Chlorpyrifos and BPA were found in all samples and permethrin was found in 90% of the samples. Chlorpyrifos and permethrin were degraded significantly by pasteurisation. |
| Abdallah et al. (2020) | Concentrations of perfluoroalkyl substances in human milk from Ireland: Implications for adult and nursing infant exposure | 10 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) | Four PFASs (PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS and PFOS) were detected in 16 DHM samples in Ireland. PFOA was found in the highest levels at a median of 0.10 ng/mL. |