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. 2024 Apr 1;14:7624. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-57156-1

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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(A) Diagram of Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats 24 h after implant surgery. Five respective plate colony counting images are provided to show the amounts of bacteria on the surfaces of the implants. (B) Statistical analysis of the S. aureus colony counts on the surface of the titanium tablets in each group (mean ± sd; n = 6) ****p < 0.0001. (C) SEM images (×3 K) of the modified Ti surface cocultured with S. aureus biofilms. (D) HE-stained (×20) skin tissues around each group of samples after being cocultured with S. aureus in Sprague‒Dawley (SD) rats for 24 h.