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. 2024 Apr 2;17:16. doi: 10.1186/s13045-024-01535-8

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 4 — Nanoparticles orchestrating immune cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). Nanoparticles elevate antigen presentation via MHC-I and MHC-II, stimulating CD⁴⁺ and CD⁸⁺ T cells, thereby facilitating cancer immunotherapy. The nanostructures amplify Dectin-2 and TLR-4 levels, fostering TH17 responses for effective cancer immunotherapy. Additionally, they boost dendritic cell maturation and, through the delivery of anti-miR-21, induce polarization of macrophages into the M1 phenotype. The nanoparticles’ downregulation of osteopontin in CAFs disrupts cancer progression. Moreover, these nanoparticles suppress Treg cells, preventing immunosuppression (Created by Biorender.com)