Table 1.

Nanoparticle-induced cancer immunotherapy through targeting macrophages

Nanoparticle	Cancer type/Cell line	Size (nm)/Zeta potential (mV)	Outcome	Reference
PEGylated liposomes	Breast cancer/4T1 cells Pancreatic cancer/ murine KPC1245 and KPC1242 cells	75 nm	Delivery of mannose and levamisole hydrochloride for glycolysis suppression and reducing mitochondrial energy metabolism Suppression of cancer proliferation Combination with radiotherapy impairs M2 polarization of macrophages and increases immune responses	[260]
Prodrug nanoparticles	Colorectal cancer/MC38 cells Breast cancer/MCF-7 cells	39 nm/-8.23 mV 263.2 nm/less than − 5 mV	Co-delivery of doxorubicin and R848 Modification of nanoparticles with bifunctional PD-1/PD-L1 peptide antagonist PCP Cleavage of nanoparticles with FAP-α in the tumor stroma Release of cargo in the tumor site stimulates immunogenic cell death and causes macrophage reprogramming	[261]
Lipid nanoparticles	Pancreatic cancer/KPC cells	122.4 nm/+27.82 mV	Loading lipid nanoparticles in injectable hydrogels Delivery of CCL5-siRNA by lipid nanoparticles to induce M1 polarization of macrophages and enhance T cell-induced immune responses	[262]
Upconversion nanostructures	Breast cancer/4T1 cells	39.5 ± 1.1 and 54.1 ± 1.3 nm/-19.7 mV and − 4.1 mV	Introduction of upconversion nanoparticles co-doped with perfluorocarbon (PFC)/chlorin e6 (Ce6) Targeted delivery of paclitaxel as a chemotherapy drug Increasing singlet oxygen production Stimulating M1 polarization of macrophage in accelerating pro-inflammatory cytokine release to impair breast cancer progression	[263]
Iron-chelated melanin-like nanocarriers	Colon and breast cancers/ CT26 and 4T1 cells	150 nm	Stimulating M1 polarization of macrophages and providing photothermal therapy, they accelerated tumor-associated antigen release to improve cancer immunotherapy	[264]
Supramolecular nanoparticles	Breast cancer/4T1 cells	190.1 nm/-17.1 mV	Suppression of CSF1R and MAPK to stimulate M1 polarization of macrophages	[265]
MIP-3β plasmid	Breast cancer/4T1 cells	90 nm/-2.1 mV	Increasing dendritic cell maturation and suppressing M2 polarization of macrophages	[266]
Au@PG nanocarriers	Lung cancer/ Lewis lung carcinoma cells	32.2 nm at 2.5 mM ONPG, 29.8 nm at 10 mM, 26.4 nm at 50 mM, and 18.3 nm at 75 mM	Polyaniline-based glycol-condensation on the nanostructures Switching M2 polarized macrophages into M1 polarized macrophages Nanoparticles with smaller sizes demonstrate higher efficacy in the macrophage re-education	[267]
CaCO3-loaded Au nanostructures	Macrophages/RAW 264.7 cells	32 nm	Elongating macrophage cell morphology Stimulation of M1 biomarker and inflammatory cytokines Inducing M2 polarization of macrophages	[268]
Polymeric nanocarriers	Osteosarcoma/K7M2 cells	98.4 nm/-14.3 mV	Biodegradable nanoparticles for delivery of regorafenib as vascular normalization compound Release of cargo upon laser irradiation of 808 nm and increasing hypoxia in TME Induction of the release of reactive oxygen species and mediation of immunogenic cell death Stimulation of M1 polarization of macrophages	[269]
Gadofullerene nanocarriers	Breast cancer/4T1 cells	68.1 nm/-37.7 mV	M1 polarization of macrophages and increasing infiltration of T lymphocytes in the TME for cancer suppression	[270]
DGL-ZA nanoparticles	Breast cancer/4T1 cells	123.1 nm/-13.4 mV	Potential cancer biodistribution, extravasation, and high tumor penetration Conjugation of dendrigraft poly-L-lysines as inducers of autophagy Macrophage regulation and increasing tumor-suppressor activity	[271]
Phosphatidylserine-modified nanoparticles	Melanoma/B16F10 cells	230 nm/at a range of 20–30 mV	Externalization of nanostructures occurs when they are exposed to the TME with upregulation of MMP2 Increasing depletion of tumular-associated macrophages in TME	[272]
Hyaluronic acid-functionalized nanoparticles	Non-small cell lung cancer	92 nm/-12 mV	Targeted delivery of miR-125b and increasing its transfection more than 6 times to induce M1 polarization and enhance iNOS levels	[273]
Trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles	Breast cancer/4T1 cells	120–160 nm/20 mV	Functionalization with mannose and glycocholic acid Delivery of SIRPα-siRNA and MUC1 pDNA Oral delivery of cargo pMUC1 increases macrophage phagocytosis ability and M1 polarization Increasing immunity by the SIRPα-siRNA	[274]