Table 3.

Application of biomimetic nanostructures for enhancement of cancer immunotherapy

Vehicle	Cancer type/Cell line	Size (nm)/zeta potential (mV)	Highlights	Reference
Biomimetic nanovesicles	Breast cancer/4T1 cells	500 nm	Loading 5-aminolevulinate hydrochloride (HAL) and 3-methyladenine (3MA) into cancer cell-derived microparticles Increasing biosynthesis of PpIX in mitochondria, causing ROS generation after irradiation and increasing mitochondrial dysfunction Suppression of mitophagy PD-L1 downregulation to mediate immunogenic cell death	[463]
Hybrid nanoparticles	Breast cancer/4T1 cells	180 nm/−18.93 mV and − 26.4 mV	Development of hybrid nanoparticles from GTe and modification with cancer cell membrane and bacterial outer membrane GTe functions as a radiosensitizer and the membranes can increase anti-cancer immune responses Increasing ROS generation Stimulation of immunogenic cell death	[464]
Biomimetic nanovaccine	-	-	Functionalization of nanoparticles with cancer cell membrane Co-delivery of CpG and propranolol High accumulation in lymph nodes and enough drug release Increasing dendritic cell maturation and antigen presentation Enhancing CD8+ T cell priming and Promoting infiltration of B and NK cells Inhibiting the immunosuppressive TME	[465]
Biomimetic PLGA nanoparticles		147.8 nm/-1.8 mV	Delivery of 2-bromo-palmitate by PLGA nanoparticles to increase its potential in breast cancer therapy Functionalization of nanoparticles with cancer cell membrane Downregulation of PD-1/PD-L1	[466]
Porous silicon@Au nanocarriers	Breast cancer/4T1 cells	Up to 243.30 nm	Functionalization of nanocomposites with cancer cell membrane Stimulation of anti-cancer immune responses and relieving immunosuppressive microenvironment Suppressing the proliferation and invasion of cancers	[467]
AIEgens	Breast cancer/4T1 cells	113.2 nm/-12.8 mV	Modification with dendritic cell-derived membrane Accumulation in lipid droplets of cancer cells The presence of cell membrane allows to accelerate hitchhiking of AIEdots into T cells and stimulates them in cancer immunotherapy	[468]
FePSe3 nanosheets	Colon cancer/CT26 cells	+ 28.5, + 24.0, + 37.8, and + 0.2 mV	Modification of nanoparticles with cancer cell membrane Loading anti-PD-1 peptide in the nanoparticles Phototherapy-induced immune responses and tumor ablation Suppression of PD-1/PD-L1 axis to stimulate T cells	[469]