Table 4.

Application of exosomes in cancer immunotherapy

Exosome source	Cargo	Cancer type	Cell line	Remark	Reference
Dendritic cell	Neoantigens	Melanoma	B16F10 cells	Delivery of cargo to the lymph nodes and stimulation of T- and B-cell immune responses High biocompatibility Improving survival of animal model Suppressing proliferation and delayed tumor relapse	[489]
Glioblastoma	LncRNA	Glioblastoma	Human glioma cell line LN229, mouse glioma cell line GL261, human microglial cell line HMC3, and mouse microglial cell line BV-2	Stimulation of microglia to generate and secrete complement C5 in chemotherapy resistance development	[490]
M1 macrophage	HOTTIP	Head and neck cancer	Hep-2 cells	TLR5/NF-κB overexpression to impair progression of head and neck cancer	[491]
CD45RO- CD8+ T cell	-	Endometrial cancer	Ishikawa, RL95-2 and KLE cells	The exosomes suppress estrogen-induced endometrial cancer progression through miR-765 release	[492]
M1 macrophage	SN38 MnO2	Breast cancer	4T1 cells	Cancer-targeting ability and prolonging blood circulation Stimulating M1 polarization of macrophages Increasing recruitment of NK cells	[493]
γδ-T cells	-	Nasopharyngeal cancer	NP69, HK-1 and NPC43 cells	Elimination and killing tumor cells Stimulation of FasL and DR5/TRAIL axis Suppressing cancer growth Increasing survival of animal model Apoptosis induction Increasing migration of T cells to the tumor site through CCR5 upregulation	[494]
-	-	Breast cancer	4T1 cells	The smart and bioengineered exosomes with CD62L and OX40L can induce T cells and suppress Treg cell function	[495]
Dendritic cells	-	Melanoma	B16-OVA cells	Functionalization of exosomes with anti-CD3 and anti-EGFR to bind to T cells	[496]
iPSCs and dendritic cells exosomes	Doxorubicin	Gastric cancer	MFC cell line	Delivery of chemotherapy drug Tumor-targeting ability Recruitment of immune cells to the TME	[497]
Cancer cells	Paclitaxel	Breast cancer	4T1 cells	Development of liposome-exosome conjugate with high biocompatibility to increase the number of CD8+ T cells	[498]
Cancer cells	-	Breast cancer	4T1 cells	A combination of oxygenated water and cancer-secreted exosomes induce anti-tumor responses and suppress angiogenesis and invasion	[499]
Cancer cells	-	Pancreatic cancer	PANC-1 cells	Exosomes reduce the levels of HLA-DR on the surface of CD14 + monocytes to cause immunosuppression through regulation of STAT3, stimulation of arginase expression and ROS	[500]
M1 macrophages	Docetaxel	Breast cancer	4T1 cells	The docetaxel-loaded exosomes stimulate cancer immunotherapy through M1 polarization of macrophages	[501]
Dendritic cells	siRNA	Melanoma	B16-F10 cells	BRAF siRNA delivery by exosomes to induce T lymphocytes	[502]
HEK 293T cell	Chlorin e6 (Ce6) and immune adjuvant R848	Prostate cancer	RM-1 cells	The exosomes preferentially accumulate in the tumor site and induce dendritic cell maturation Increasing levels of CD80 and CD86 as biomarkers of dendritic cells Inducing M1 polarization of macrophages	[503]