Table 1.
Perceived and actual support for inequitable gender norms as measured by self- and wife-reported beliefs
| Statements | Percentage estimated to support inequitable gender norms | Percentage who support inequitable gender norms (95% CIs) | Wilcoxon rank-sum test effect size | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean | Median | Self-reported | Wife-reported | Self-reported | Wife-reported | |
| 1. It is better to have more sons than daughters in a family | 38 | 40 | 8 (6–11)* | 17 (13–22)* | 0.67 | 0.53 |
| 2. It is important for women to earn their own money | 37 | 40 | 22 (18–25)* | 16 (12–21)* | 0.4 | 0.49 |
| 3. A husband and wife should decide together equally about when to have children | 25 | 20 | 5 (4–8)* | 7 (4–10)* | 0.46 | 0.46 |
| 4. Only men should be allowed to manage a business | 37 | 30 | 7 (5–9)* | 15 (11–20)* | 0.62 | 0.45 |
| 5. Only men should be allowed to own land | 40 | 40 | 9 (7–12)* | 22 (17–27)* | 0.65 | 0.44 |
| 6. Education is more important for boys than girls | 38 | 30 | 10 (8–13)* | 22 (18–27)* | 0.56 | 0.38 |
| 7. Women should express their opinions at community meetings | 18 | 0 | 2 (1–4)* | 4 (2–7)* | 0.38 | 0.38 |
| 8. Women should be welcome at community meetings | 16 | 0 | 3 (2–5)* | 4 (2–7)* | 0.33 | 0.33 |
| 9. It is the mother's responsibility alone to take care of the children | 35 | 30 | 11 (9–14)* | 22 (18–27)* | 0.51 | 0.31 |
| 10. A woman can live a successful life even if she does not marry a man | 31 | 20 | 21 (18–24)* | 23 (18–28)* | 0.21 | 0.21 |
| 11. If a woman wants to avoid being pregnant, it is her responsibility alone to prevent the pregnancy | 39 | 40 | 15 (12–18)* | 34 (28–40)* | 0.58 | 0.14 |
| 12. A woman should tolerate being beaten by her husband to keep her family together | 43 | 40 | 29 (25–33)* | 42 (36–48) | 0.35 | 0 |
| 13. A man should have the final say about decisions in his home | 69 | 80 | 63 (59–67)* | 73 (67–78) | 0.21 | 0 |
| 14. A man is justified in hitting his wife if she refuses to have sex with him | 34 | 30 | 5 (4,8)* | 35 (29–40) | 0.66 | −0.01 |
| 15. It is important for girls/women to be educated | 10 | 0 | 1 (0–2) | 2 (1–5) | −0.01 | −0.01 |
| 16. Only when a woman has a child is she a real woman | 49 | 50 | 25 (21–29)* | 52 (46–58) | 0.56 | −0.14 |
| 17. A man is the one who decides when to have sex with his wife | 50 | 50 | 30 (26–34)* | 56 (50–62) | 0.53 | −0.21 |
| 18. A man is justified in hitting his wife if she argues with him | 51 | 50 | 26 (22–30)* | 61 (55–66) | 0.55 | −0.32 |
| 19. A woman should be free to divorce (or leave) her husband even if he does not wish | 53 | 50 | 51 (47–55) | 68 (63–74) | −0.02 | −0.36 |
| 20. A wife should be able to prevent her husband from taking another wife | 58 | 60 | 48 (44–52)* | 76 (70–81) | 0.32 | −0.50 |
Support for inequitable gender norms is indicated by agreeing with or not agreeing with statements opposing and favouring women's empowerment respectively.
One-sample, one-sided Wilcoxon rank-sum tests are used to test if men overestimated the percentage of men supporting inequitable gender norms (* p < 0.001); see Table S1 for full test statistics. Statements are arranged in descending order by effect size when using wife-reported beliefs to measure community norms. Statement numbering matches Figures 2 and 3.