Table 1.

HFD mediated gut microbiota alterations among obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, gastrointestinal diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Chronic diseases	Model	Diet	Method	Gut microbiota					Metabolites	References
				Firmicutes	Bacteroidetes	Proteobacteria	Actinobacteria	Others
Obesity	Human	\	16S rRNA	↑Firmicutes	↓Bacteroidetes	\	\	\	\	[39]
Obesity	Germ‐free male C57BL/6J mice	41% fat; 42.7% sugar (4 weeks)	Shotgun Sequencing	↑Firmicutes ↑Eubacterium dolichum	↑Bacteroidetes ↓Bacteroidales	↑Proteobacteria	\	↑Mollicutes	↑Acetate ↑Butyrate ↑Lactate	[10]
Obesity	Male C57BL/6NCrl mice	60% fat (12 weeks)	16S rRNA	↑Lactobacilli ↑Erysipelotrichales ↓Clostridiales ↓Ruminococcaceae	↑Rikenellaceae	\	\	\	\	[40]
Obesity	Male Wistar rats	45% fat (6 weeks)	16S rRNA	↑F/B ↑The Clostridiales order (family Clostrideacea and RC4‐4)	↑Butyricimonas	↑unclassified RF32 ↑Desulfovibrionaceae	\	↓Archaea ↑Deferribacteres ↑Cyanobacteria ↑Corynebacterium	\	[41]
Obesity	Male C57BL/6N mice	48% fat (4 weeks)	16S rRNA	↑Clostridiales ↑Acetatifactor muris ↑Eubacterium coprostanoligenes	↓Bacteroidales	\	\	\	\	[42]
Obesity	Male C57BL/6J	45% fat (12 weeks)	16S rRNA	↓Ruminococcaceae	\	\	\	↑S24_7 ↓SCFA bacteria	Butyrate	[43]
Obesity	Male rats	60% fat (8 weeks)	16S rRNA	↑Firmicutes ↑F/B ↑Ruminococcaceae ↑Erysipelotrichaceae ↑Christensenellaceae ↓Veillonellaceae	↓Bacteroidetes ↓Prevotellaceae ↓Bacteroides	↑Proteobacteria ↑Desulfovibrionaceae	\	\	↓Acetic acid ↓Butyric acid ↓Pentanoic acid	[44]
Obesity	Male C57BL/6J mice	60% fat (8 weeks)	16S rRNA	↑Firmicutes ↑Oscillospira ↑Ruminococcus ↑Clostridiales	↓Bacteroidetes ↓Bacteria S24‐7 ↓Bacteroidales	↑Proteobacteria	↓Actinobacteria	\	\	[11]
Diabetes	Male C57bl6/J mice	72% fat (13 weeks)	In situ hybridization analysis	↓Eubacterium rectale–Clostridium coccoides group	↓Bacteroides MIB	↓Enterobacteriaceae	↓Bifidobacterium spp.	\	\	[45]
Diabetes	Human	\	RT‐PCR	↑Lactobacillus ↑L. bugaricus ↑L. rhamnosum ↑L. acidophilus	↓Bifidobacteria ↓B. adolescentis	\	\		\	[46]
Diabetes	Male C57BL/6 mice	60% fat (6 weeks)	16S rRNA	↑F/B ↑Ruminococcaceae ↑Erysipelotrichaceae ↑Mogibacteriaceae ↑Lactobacillaceae ↑Oscillospira ↑Allobaculum ↑Ruminococcus ↑Dorea ↑Anaerovorax ↑Coprobacillus ↑Lactobacillus ↓Eubacterium dolichum	↓Rikenellaceae ↓Parabacteroides distasonis ↑Bacteroidaceae ↑Bacteroides	↓ S24‐7 ↑Bacteroidaceae ↑Tannerella	↑Actinobacteria	↑Deferribacteres ↑Mucispirillum	\	[47]
Cardiovascular diseases	Human	\	Shotgun metagenomics	↓ Eubacterium rectale	\	\	\	\	↓ Plasma butyrate	[8]
Cardiovascular diseases	Human	\	16S rRNA	↑Megasphaera ↑Oscillibacter ↑Faecalibacterium	↓Bacteroides ↓Prevotella	↑Enterobacter ↑Desulfovibrio	\	\	\	[48]
Cardiovascular diseases	Human	\	Shotgun metagenomics	↓Clostridium ↓Anaerostipes hadrus ↓Streptococcus thermophilus ↓Blautia ↓SGB 4712	↑Odoribacter splanchnicus	↑Proteobacteria ↑Escherichia Coli		\	↑p‐cresol glucuronide ↑p‐cresol sulfate	[49]
Cardiovascular diseases	Male C57BL/6J mice	24% fat, 2% cholesterol (2 months)	16S rRNA	↑Firmicutes, ↑Lactobacillus ↑Turicibacter ↑Enterococcus ↑Streptococcus	↓Muribaculaceae ↓Prevotellaceae	\	\	\	\	[50]
Cardiovascular diseases	Male apoE‐/‐ mice	HFD (12 weeks)	16S rRNA	↓Firmicutes	↑Bacteroidetes	↑Proteobacteria	\	\	\	[51]
Cardiovascular diseases	Ldlr‐/‐ (Casp1‐/‐) mice	60% fat, 0.25% cholesterol (13 weeks)	16S rRNA	↓Clostridium ↓Christensenellaceae	↓Odoribacter	\	\	↓Akkermansia	↓Total SCFAs ↓Acetate	[52]
Gastrointestinal diseases	Human	\	RT‐PCR	↓Roseburia hominis ↓Faecalibacterium prausnitzii	\	\		\	↓SCFA, acetate, propionate	[53]
Gastrointestinal diseases	Human	\	16S rRNA	↓Coprococcus ↓Phascolarctobacterium	\	\		↑Fusobacteriales ↑Fusobacteriaceae ↓Akkermansia	\	[54]
Gastrointestinal diseases	C57BL/6 mice	37% fat (1 weeks)	16S rRNA	↓Firmicutes	↑Bacteroidetes	↑Bilophila wadsworthia	\	\	\	[55]
Gastrointestinal diseases	Human	\	16S rRNA	↓Lactobacillus ↑Veillonella ↑Ruminococcaeae	↑Alistipes ↑Parabacteroides	↓Proteobacteria	\	\	\	[56]
Gastrointestinal diseases	Human	\	16S rRNA	↑Firmicutes ↑Lachnospiraceae ↑Ruminococcaeae	↓Bacteroidetes	↑Proteobacteria ↑Enterobacteriaceae	↓Actinobacteria ↑Eggerthella	\	\	[57]
Gastrointestinal diseases	Human	\	16S rRNA	↑F/B ↑Firmicutes ↑Papillibacter ↑Dialister ↑Bifidobacterium ↑Dorea ↑Blautia ↑Sporobacter ↑Actinomyces ↑Escherichia	↓Bacteroidetes ↓Bacteroidia ↓Odoribacter ↓Bacteroides ↓Alistipes	\	↑Actinobacteria	\	\	[58]
Neurodegenerative diseases	Male triple transgenic mice, B6129SF2/J mice	HFD (4 months)	16S rRNA	↑Clostridium ↑Mogibacteriacea ↑Lachnospiraceae ↑Enterococcaceae ↑Turicibacteraceae ↓Peptococcaceae ↓Dehalobacteriaceae ↓Lactobacillaceae	↓S24‐7 ↑Rikenellaceae	\	↓Bifidobacteriaceae	↓RC4‐4 ↓Bifidobacteriaceae	\	[9]
Neurodegenerative diseases	Human	\	16S rRNA	↑Clostridium leptum ↓Eubacterium ventriosum group spp. ↓Lachnospiraceae spp. ↓Marvinbryantia spp. ↓Monoglobus spp. ↓Ruminococcus torques group spp. ↓Christensenellaceae R‐7 spp. ↓Lachnospiraceae spp. ↓Lachnoclostridium spp. ↓Roseburia hominis	\	↓Bilophila wadsworthia	\	\	\	[59]
Neurodegenerative diseases	Human	\	16S rRNA	↓Faecalibacterium ↓Ruminococcaceae ↓Anaerostipes ↓Ruminoccocus_C ↓CAG‐41 ↓F. prausnitzii	↑Prevotella	\	\			[60]

Abbreviations: F/B, Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio; HFD, high‐fat diet; SCFAs, Short‐chain fatty acids.