Table 1.
Effects of exercise and physical activity on common eye diseases: insights into myopia, cataract and DED with potential mechanisms explored.
| Disease | Citation | Pre-clinical vs. clinical | Study design | Study population | Interventions | Study duration/follow-up period | Key findings | Potential mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Myopia | Hansen et al. (40) | Clinical | Prospective cohort | 1,443 participants | Physical activity (≥3 h/week) | 16 years | Participating in three or more hours of physical activity per week significantly reduced the likelihood of developing myopia | (1) Increased release of dopamine facilitated by stronger light (outdoor exercise) (2) Reduction in time spent in near-work activities (3) Involvement of induced growth hormone in growth regulation of the eye |
| Holton et al. (41) | Clinical | Cross-sectional | 6,200 participants | Outdoor activity (≥1 h/day) | 5 years | An hour of outdoor activity a day reduced the odds of being myopic by 13% | ||
| He et al. (42) | Clinical | Prospective cohort | 1,903 schoolchildren | An additional 40 min class of outdoor activities | 3 years | Cumulative incidence of myopia in intervention group is 9.1% lower than control group | ||
| French et al. (43) | Clinical | Cohort study | 863 schoolchildren | Outdoor activity | 6 years | The trend toward higher rates of myopia was more pronounced among children who spent less time outdoors | ||
| Lee et al. (44) | Clinical | Cross-sectional | 5,048 male military conscripts | Outdoor activity | 3 years | Less outdoor activity significantly associated with myopia prevalence | ||
| Ip et al. (45) | Clinical | Cross-sectional | 2,339 schoolchildren | Outdoor activity | / | Outdoor exercise negatively correlates with myopia rates | ||
| DED | Kawashima et al. (32) | Clinical | Cross-sectional | 425 office workers | High, moderate or low PA | / | More Exercise, lower dry eye quality of life scores | (1) Improvement in tear film stability (by increasing tear volume and prolonging tear film breakup) (2) Reduction of tear inflammation and oxidative stress levels |
| Kawashima et al. (35) | Clinical | Randomized controlled trial | 36 office workers | Aerobic and resistance exercises | 2 months | Higher level of physical activity was associated with a lower prevalence of DED | ||
| Cheng et al. (34) | Clinical | Cross-sectional | 915 office workers | Physical activity | / | Higher level of physical activity was associated with fewer symptoms of DED | ||
| Nugyen et al. (46) | Clinical | Cross-sectional | 48,418 subjects | Sedentary behavior | 6 years | Higher sedentary time increased the risk of DED | ||
| Vera et al. (47) | Clinical | Quasi-experimental | 19 helicopter pilots | Treadmill exercise | 10 min | Exercise reduced tear osmolarity | ||
| Peart et al. (48) | Clinical | Quasi-experimental | 12 subjects | Cycloergometer exercise | 15 min | Exercise reduced ocular surface disease index | ||
| Sun et al. (39) | Clinical | Experimental | 52 healthy and DED patients | Jogging | 30 min | Exercise was associated with increased tear break-up time | ||
| Hanyuda et al. (33) | Clinical | Cross-sectional | 102,582 participants | Physical activity | 6 years | Lack of exercise linked to higher risk of DED among middle-aged and elderly in Japan | ||
| Cataract | Williams (9) | Clinical | Prospective cohort | 29,025 male and 11,967 female | Running | 7 years | Vigorous physical activity delayed the onset of cataract | (1) Inhibition of oxidative stress and enhancement of antioxidant capacity (2) Suppression of inflammation and enhancement of anti-inflammatory capacity (3) Regulation of blood glucose, blood pressure and blood lipids |
| Williams (11) | Clinical | Prospective cohort | 32,610 runners and 14,917 walkers | Different levels of exercise | 6.2 years | Moderate (walking) and vigorous (running) exercise were both significantly associated with lower cataract risk | ||
| Paunksnis et al. (18) | Clinical | Comparative | 110 patients and 50 controls | Physical activity (>5,900 min/week) | / | The intensity of lens opacity and cataract are significantly related to physical activity | ||
| Zheng et al. (49) | Clinical | Prospective cohort | 52,660 participants | Different levels of physical activity | 12.1 years | High physical activity may be associated with decreased risk of age-related cataract | ||
| López-Sánchez et al. (50) | Clinical | Cross-sectional | 17,777 participants | Physical activity | 1 year | Physical activity was significantly associated with cataract |