Table 1.

Comparative features of one-way functions, PUFs and CUFs

	One-way function17	PUF18	CUF (this work)
Manifestation	Abstract, mathematical concept	Physical/tangible object(s)	Large pool of molecules
Function generation	Not generated; discovered as mathematical function	Random manufacture of a unique token	Random DNA synthesis of a unique pool
Operation/execution	Digital	Physical	Chemical
Readout	Exact number	Noisy dataa	Noisy dataa
Clonability	Yes	No	Copiable and uncopiable state
Consumed by execution	No	No	Yes
Distributability	Yes	No	Yes

^aNumeric signature key can be extracted from the data.