Table 4.
Summary of study outcomes and results
| Mean Change | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First Author (Year) | Meta-Analysis (Yes/No) | Intervention | Exercise Frequency (per week) | Goal Intensity | Goal Session Length (min) | Duration (wk) | Control | Measurement Tool (Primary/Secondary Outcome) | Control | Exercise | MD Exercise Control (SD or 95% CI) | Effect Size (95% CI) | P Value |
| Arterial resistance | |||||||||||||
| Chan et al.54 (2017) | No | Ten muscle groups using free weights, tubing, resistance machine | 3 | Week 1–4 RPE 12–14; 12–15 rep Week 5–12 RPE 14–15; 10–12 rep |
30 | 13 | Usual care | PWV peripheral (m/s) (primary) | BL: 12.3 (9.1–20.8) Post: 11.5 (9.7–20.0) |
BL: 11.5 (9.7–20.0) Post: 13.0 (9.3–26.7) |
0 (−0.1 to 0.1) | 0.02 (−0.61 to 0.57) | 0.6 |
| AI (%) (secondary) | −1.4 | 0.4 | 1.9 (−5.9 to 9.7) | 0.14 (−0.45 to 0.74) | 0.9 | ||||||||
| AI×75 (%) (secondary) | −0.3 | 2.3 | 2.7 (−3.9 to 9.4) | 0.24 (−0.35 to 0.84) | 0.5 | ||||||||
| Cooke et al.48 (2018) | Yes | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 12–16 | Not stated | 16 | Usual care | PWV central (m/s) (primary) | 0.20 (−0.1 to 0.9) | −1.0 (−2.0 to 0.5) | — | — | 0.03 |
| AI×75 (%) (secondary) | 3.5 (1.0–8.5) | −2 (−4.5 to 1.0) | — | — | 0.01 | ||||||||
| Graham-Brown et al.66 (2021) | Yes | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 12–14 | 30 | 26 | Usual care | PWV central (m/s) | 0.36 (0.76) | −2.4 (0.76) | −2.8 (0.15) | −2.07 (−3.2 to −0.99) | <0.001 |
| Greenwood et al.67 (2021) | Yes | Stationary cycling, lower-extremity muscular strengthening | Aerobic 3×, resistance 2× | 7 | 21–30 min aerobic; three sets of lower extremity muscular conditioning exercises | 26 | Usual care | PWV central (m/s) (secondary) | −0.32 | −0.04 | −0.28 | — | — |
| Koh et al.47 (2010) | Yes | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 12–13 | Progress from 15 to 45 | 26 | Usual care | PWV central (m/s) (primary) | 0.5 (1.1) | −0.3 (1.1) | −0.8 (−2.1 to 0.5) | — | 0.4 |
| PWV peripheral (m/s) (secondary) | 0.7 (0.7) | −0.3 (0.42) | 1.0 (0.2) | — | 0.2 | ||||||||
| AI (%) (secondary) | 2 (6) | 1 (4) | −1 (−10.2 to 8.1) | — | 0.8 | ||||||||
| AI×75 (%) (secondary) | 2 (6) | 1 (4) | −1 (−9.5 to 6.6) | — | 0.7 | ||||||||
| Mihaesu et al.73 (2013) | No | Elastic bands, dumbbells, ankle weights | 3 | RPE 12–14 and increase of exercise HR of 15–30 bpm | 40 | 12 | Usual care | PWV central (m/s) (primary) | 1.3 (0.9) | −1.0 (0.7) | −2.3 (0.3) | — | 0.03 |
| AI (%) (secondary) | −3.8 (6.7) | −3.5 (5.4) | −0.4 (2.2) | — | 0.1 | ||||||||
| Oliveira E Silva et al.64 (2019) | Yes | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 13; 65%–75% maximum HR | 30 | 17 | Usual care | PWV central (m/s) (primary) | −0.2 (1.4) | −0.4 (1.1) | −0.2 (0.5) | — | 0.3 |
| AI (%) (primary) | 4.7 (3.8) | 3.8 (5.3) | −0.9 (1.7) | — | 0.06 | ||||||||
| Toussaint et al.69 (2008) | Yes | Stationary cycling | 3 | None stated | None stated | 13 | Usual care | PWV central (m/s) (primary) | 10.2 (0.7) | 9.0 (0.6) | 2.3 (0.2) | — | — |
| AI (%) (secondary) | 33.9 (2.9) | 28.4 (2.4) | 6.5 (0.5) | — | — | ||||||||
| BP | |||||||||||||
| Agustin et al.71 (2022) | No | Not stated (? aerobic) | 2 | Not stated | 30–45 | 8 | Usual care | SBP (primary) | 4.2 | −9.07 | 13.27 | — | — |
| DBP (primary) | 0.8 | −9.34 | 10.14 | — | — | ||||||||
| Anderson et al.59 (2004) | No | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE somewhat hard | 30 | 13 | Usual care periods | 44-h ambulatory SBP (primary) | N/A | −12.5 (9.37) | — | — | <0.05 (repeated measures ANOVA 0, 3, 6 mo time points) |
| 44-h ambulatory DBP (primary) | N/A | −9.3 (4.85) | — | — | 0.05 (repeated measures ANOVA at 0, 3, 6 mo time points) | ||||||||
| Chan et al.54 (2017) | No | Ten muscle groups using free weights, tubing, and resistance machine | 3 | Week 1–4 RPE 12–14; 12–15 rep Week 5–12 RPE 14–15; 10–12 rep | 30 | 12 | Usual care | SBP (secondary) | −6 (7.98) | −7 (9.88) | 1 (3.17) | Relative ES: 0.05 (−0.64 to 0.54) | Week 13 versus week 0: 0.28 Week 26 versus week 0: 0.25 Whole time: 0.17 |
| DBP (secondary) | −1 (3.04) | −1 (3.69) | 0 (1.19) | Relative ES: 0.02 (−0.61 to 0.57) | Week 13 versus week 0: 0.55 Week 26 versus week 0: 0.54 Whole time: 0.16 |
||||||||
| Central PP (secondary) | −4 (7.31) | −4 (9.04) | 0 (2.90) | Relative ES: 0.03 (−0.62 to 0.56) | Week 13 versus week 0: 0.39 Week 26 versus week 0: 0.4 Whole time: 0.22 |
||||||||
| Central SBP (secondary) | −6 (8.12) | −5 (10.29) | −1 (3.27) | Relative ES: 0.04 (−0.55 to 0.63) | Week 13 versus week 0: 0.31 Week 26 versus week 0: 0.48 Whole time: 0.19 |
||||||||
| Central DBP (secondary) | −1 (3.18) | −1 (3.89) | 0 (1.25) | Relative ES: 0.08 (−0.51 to 0.67) | Week 13 versus week 0: 0.4 Week 26 versus week 0: 0.71 Whole time: 0.17 |
||||||||
| Peripheral PP (secondary) | −4 (7.17) | −5 (8.63) | 1 (2.80) | Relative ES: 0.05 (−0.64 to 0.54) | Week 13 versus week 0: 0.32 Week 26 versus 0: 0.28 Whole time: 0.16 |
||||||||
| Cheng et al.61 (2019) | Yes | Weight-bearing arm curl, arm raise, and leg raises | 3 | RPE 11–12 6-(6–20 scale) | 20 | 104 | Usual care | Predialysis SBP (primary) | 4.83 (3.19) | 1.26 (3.42) | 3.57 (0.66) | — |
P = 0.413 (control group) P = 0.597 (exercise group) P = 0.694 (baseline) P = 0.510 (year 1) |
| Predialysis DBP (primary) | −0.33 (2.15) | −1.58 (2.54) | 1.25 (0.47) | — |
P = 0.117 (control group) P = 0.234 (exercise group) P = 0.497 (baseline) P = 0.328 (year 1) |
||||||||
| Fernandes et al.62 (2019) | Yes | Stationary cycling | 3 | — | 50 | 8 | Usual care | Predialysis SBP (primary) | 2.63 (5.16) | 1.5 (4.57) | 1.13 (1.56) | — | 0.738 |
| Predialysis DBP (primary) | 2.9 (3.56) | 3.5 (2.90) | −0.6 (1.04) | — | 0.864 | ||||||||
| Graham-Brown et al.66 (2021) | Yes | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 12–14 | 30 | 26 | Usual care | Interdialytic SBP (mm Hg) | −4.9 (4.41) | −6 (4.22) | 1.1 (0.65) | −6.8 (−17.2 to 3.6) | 0.2 |
| Interdialytic DBP (mm Hg) | 0.6 (2.46) | −2 (2.33) | 2.6 (0.36) | −1.95 (−7.6 to 3.7) | 0.5 | ||||||||
| Predialysis SBP (mm Hg) | −6.7 (3.93) | −4 (2.91) | −2.7 (0.47) | 1.32 (−10.5 to 13.2) | 0.8 | ||||||||
| Predialysis DBP (mm Hg) | −2.5 (2.26) | −3.2 (1.81) | 0.7 (0.28) | 0.5 (−5.7 to 6.7) | 0.9 | ||||||||
| Guio et al.55 (2017) | No | Stationary cycling | 3 | Mean modified Borg RPE 1.1±1.1 to 1.4±0.9 | ≤30 | 17 | Usual care | Central SBP (secondary) | — | 2.1 (4.06) | — | — | 0.951 (ANOVA) |
| Central DBP (secondary) | — | 4.1 (3.26) | — | — | 0.328 (ANOVA) | ||||||||
| Huang et al.63 (2020) | Yes | Progressively increasing combined aerobic and resistance stationary cycling | 3 | RPE of 12–14 | 40 | 24 | Sham exercises | Predialysis SBP (secondary) | −1.63 (6.06) | −8.42 (5.20) | 6.79 (2.00) | — | >0.05 (control group) <0.05 (exercise group) |
| Predialysis DBP (secondary) | −2.32 (3.02) | 3.57 (2.62) | −5.89 (1.00) | — | >0.05 (control group) <0.05 (exercise group) |
||||||||
| Koh et al.47 (2010) | Yes | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 12–13 | Progress from 15 to 45 | 26 | Usual care | Predialysis SBP (secondary) | −9 (8.53) | −9 (8.03) | 0 (2.98) | — | 0.7 |
| Predialysis DBP (secondary) | −5 (4.37) | 1 (5.84) | −6 (1.86) | — | 0.9 | ||||||||
| PP (secondary) | −4 (6.54) | −3 (7.30) | −1 (2.50) | — | 0.9 | ||||||||
| MAP (secondary) | −6 (6.18) | −6 (4.93) | 0 (2.00) | — | 0.9 | ||||||||
| Central SBP (secondary) | −7 (8.11) | −8 (8.22) | 1 (2.94) | — | 0.9 | ||||||||
| Central DBP (secondary) | −4 (4.72) | −7 (4.02) | 3 (1.57) | — | 0.8 | ||||||||
| Central PP (secondary) | −2 (5.13) | −2 (7.49) | 0 (2.32) | — | 0.9 | ||||||||
| Liao et al.50 (2016) | Noa | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 12–15 | 30 | 12 | Usual care | Pre-exercise SBP (secondary) | 1.3 (5.43) | −42.1 (14.85) | 43.4 (3.53) | — | <0.05 |
| Pre-exercise DBP (secondary) | 2.5 (4.24) | −23.1 (8.11) | 25.6 (2.05) | — | >0.05 | ||||||||
| Mihaescu et al.73 (2013) | No | Elastic bands, dumbbells, ankle weights | 3 | RPE 12–14 and HR increase by 15–30 bpm with exercise | 40 | 12 | Usual care | Predialysis SBP (secondary) | −14.4 (12.97) | −8.9 (6.29) | −5.5 (3.77) | — | 0.697 |
| Predialysis DBP (secondary) | −2.81 (8.98) | −6 (4.55) | 3.19 (2.63) | — | 0.578 | ||||||||
| Predialysis PP (secondary) | −11.63 (5.71) | −1.68 (3.28) | −9.95 (1.71) | — | 0.926 | ||||||||
| Predialysis MAP (secondary) | −6.6 (10.12) | −8.16 (4.90) | 1.56 (2.94) | — | 0.618 | ||||||||
| Central SBP (secondary) | −5 (11.04) | −11.2 (7.17) | 6.2 (3.40) | — | 0.302 | ||||||||
| Miller et al.74 (2002) | No | Stationary cycling | 3 | Exercise as long as possible; increase time by 1–5 min/session. At 30 min, increase resistance | 30 | 26 | Usual care | Predialysis SBP (secondary) | 2.4 | 0 | 2.4 | — | >0.05 |
| Predialysis DBP (secondary) | 0 | −2.4 | 2.4 | — | >0.05 | ||||||||
| Musavian et al.57 (2015) | Stationary cycling | 3 | Not stated | 30 min; three 10-min bouts of exercise, 20-min recovery between each bout | 8 | Passive cycling with electrically powered bike | Predialysis SBP (secondary) | −0.07 (0.77) | 1.06 (0.70) | −1.13 (0.26) | — |
P = 0.058 (control group) P = 0.255 (exercise group) |
|
| Predialysis DBP (secondary) | −0.37 (0.25) | 0.48 (0.29) | −0.85 (0.10) | — |
P = 0.039 (control group) P = 0.296 (exercise group) |
||||||||
| Painter et al.75 (1986) | Stationary cycling | 3 (one participant cycled 2x/wk) | 65% of VO2 max initially, 75%–85% of VO2max after 30 min/session reached | 5 min/session start; increase by 2–5 min/session until 30 min/session | 26 | Usual care | Predialysis SBP (secondary) | 0 (8.57) | −14 (12.90) | 14 (4.94) | — | 3 mo >0.05 (control group) >0.05 (exercise group) 6 mo <0.05 (exercise group) |
|
| Palar and Lobo,77 (2022) | Resistance and ROM for upper and lower extremities | 2: n=11 (57.9%). 3: n=8 (42.1%) | Not stated | 25 | 13.0357 | Usual care | SBP (secondary) | −5 (3.292) | −7.9 (4.801) | 2.9 (1.375) | — | 0.383 | |
| DBP (secondary) | −0.59 (2.675) | 0 (3.163) | −0.59 (0.987) | — | 0.990 | ||||||||
| Parsons et al.51 (2004) | Stationary cycling | 3 | 40–50% maximal work capacity | 45 min (15-min increments in first 3 h of dialysis) | 8 | Usual care | Predialysis SBP (secondary) | — | — | — | — | >0.05 (control group) >0.05 (exercise group) |
|
| Predialysis DBP (secondary) | — | — | — | — | >0.05 (control group) >0.05 (exercise group) |
||||||||
| Predialysis PP (secondary) | 3 | −3 | 6 | — | >0.05 (control group) >0.05 (exercise group) |
||||||||
| Petraki et al.52 (2008) | Stationary cycling, strengthening exercises, flexibility exercises | 3 | RPE 13 | 90 | 30 | Usual care | Predialysis SBP (primary) | −2 (4.79) | −8.3 (4.54) | 6.3 (1.42) | — | <0.05 | |
| Predialysis DBP (primary) | −1.17 (2.30) | −6 (2.60) | 4.83 (0.75) | — | <0.05 | ||||||||
| Reboredo et al.53 (a) (2010) | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 11–13 | Not stated | 12 | Usual care | 24-h ambulatory SBP (secondary) | −4.8 (7.16) | −7.1 (6.29) | 2.3 (2.55) | — | <0.05 | |
| 24-h ambulatory DBP (secondary) | −1.8 (4.10) | −3.2 (3.82) | 1.4 (1.50) | — | <0.05 | ||||||||
| Thenmozhi et al.76 (2018) | Stationary cycling | 3/wk, except 33.85% of exercise patients exercised 2×/wk | “According to the tolerance of the (patients)” No other info | 10–15 | 12 | Usual care | Predialysis SBP (secondary) | 0.16 (0.30) | −8.75 (0.27) | 8.91 (0.05) | — | <0.001 | |
| Predialysis DBP (secondary) | 0.88 (0.27) | −2.46 (0.24) | 3.34 (0.04) | — | P < 0.001 | ||||||||
| Toussaint et al.69 (2008) | Stationary cycling | 3 | None stated | None stated | 13 | Usual care | Predialysis SBP (secondary) | −0.42 (5.44) | −8.21 (5.94) | 7.78 (1.85) | — | 0.99 | |
| Predialysis DBP (secondary) | −1.25 (2.65) | 0.19 (2.83) | −1.44 (0.89) | — | — | ||||||||
| Predialysis PP (secondary) | 1.19 (4.44) | −9.06 (4.52) | 10.25 (1.45) | — | — | ||||||||
| Left ventricular structure and function (echocardiogram/CMRI) | |||||||||||||
| Graham-Brown et al.66 (2021) | Yes | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 12–14 | 30 | 26 | Usual care | LV Mass (g) (primary) | 1.6 (7.3) | −10 (8.6) | −11.6 | −11.1 (−15.8 to −6.4) | <0.001 |
| LV Mass index (g/m2) (secondary) | 1.1 (3.7) | −5.5 (4.3) | −6.6 | −6.3 (−9.2 to −3.4) | <0.001 | ||||||||
| LV end diastolic volume (ml) (secondary) | 0.9 (11.7) | 3.0 (12.7) | 2.1 | 0.5 (−14.2 to 21.2) | 0.6 | ||||||||
| LV ejection fraction (%)a (secondary) | 0.1 (11.3) | 2.5 (2.3) | 2.4 | 0.03 (−0.8 to 4.8) | 0.9 | ||||||||
| Guio et al.55 (2017) | No | Ergometer | 3 | Target HR (no specifics) | 30 | 17 | Usual care Single-group |
LV ejection fraction (%) (secondary) | 65.7 (10.2)a | 73.6 (10.1) | 7.9 (4.0) | — | 0.03 |
| LV systolic diameter (mm) (secondary) | 32.4 (6.7) | 29.8 (4.6) | −2.6 (2.2) | — | 0.3 | ||||||||
| LV diastolic diameter (mm) (secondary) | 54.5 (49.0–56.0) | 56 (53.0–58.0) | — | — | 0.03 | ||||||||
| LV posterior wall (mm) (secondary) | 12.2 (1.8) | 13.3 (3.3) | 1.1 (1.0) | — | 0.9 | ||||||||
| Kouidi et al.60 (2009) | Yes | Stationary cycling, strengthening exercises | 3 | RPE 13 | 90 | 44 | Usual care | LV ejection fraction (primary) | 0.2 (7.7) | 3.4 (3.9) | 3.2 (1.0) | — | 0.05 |
| LV mass index (g/m2) (secondary) | 1.2 (4.2) | 3.4 (6.3) | 2.2 (0.8) | — | 0.1 | ||||||||
| Momeni et al.32 (2014) | Yes | Stationary cycling | 3 | Not stated | 30 | 13 | Usual care | LV ejection fraction (primary) | 0.3 (1.8) | 3.5 (1.03) | 3.2 (0.5) | — | 0.01 |
| LV systolic diameter (mm) (secondary) | 2.5 (2.7) | 1.8 (1.8) | −0.7 (0.7) | — | 0.1 | ||||||||
| LV diastolic diameter (mm) (secondary) | 1. 2 (2.1) | −0.1 (2.4) | −1.3 (0.7) | — | 0.9 | ||||||||
| Severe LVH (% participants) (secondary) | 0 | 0 | 0 | — | — | ||||||||
| Moore et al.56 (1993) | No | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 6/10; 70% peak HR | 30–60 | 12 | Unloaded cycling at <50 rpm | Stroke volume (secondary) | 3 (2.9) | 3 (2.3) | 0 (1.2) | — | — |
| CO (L/min) | 0.3 (0.5) | 0.0 (0.5) | −0.3 (0.2) | — | — | ||||||||
| Oliveira E Silva et al.64 (2019) | Yes | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 13; 65%–75% of maximum HR | 30 | 17 | Usual care | LV mass index (g/m2) (secondary) | −1.2 (6.5) | −3.6 (6.7) | −2.4 (2.5) | — | 0.2 |
| LV mass (g) (secondary) | −4 (22.1) | −13 (20.5) | −9 (8.2) | — | 0.2 | ||||||||
| LV systolic diameter (mm) (secondary) | −0.1 (1.2) | 0.3 (2.3) | 0.4 (0.7) | — | 0.7 | ||||||||
| LV diastolic diameter (mm) (secondary) | 0.1 (1.7) | 0.4 (1.9) | 0.3 (0.7) | — | 0.4 | ||||||||
| LV posterior wall (mm) (secondary) | −0.2 (0.7) | −0.7 (0.7) | −0.5 (0.3) | — | 0.07 | ||||||||
| Reboredo et al.58 (2010)b | Yes | Stationary cycling, stretches | 3 | RPE 4–6 | 15-min warmup; ≤35-min conditioning; 1–3 min of cool-down | 12 | Usual care | LV mass index (g/m2) (secondary) | −1.3 (19.6) | 2.2 (10.6) | 3.5 (6.7) | — | — |
| LV ejection fraction (%) (secondary) | −2.2 (3.2) | 2.9 (5.0) | 5.1 (1.8) | — | — | ||||||||
| Stroke volume (ml) (secondary) | −2.2 (9.9) | 13.9 (8.1) | 16.1 (3.8) | — | — | ||||||||
| LV end systolic volume (ml) (secondary) | 2.6 (7.8) | 2.4 (11.3) | −0.2 (4.1) | — | — | ||||||||
| LV end diastolic volume (ml) (secondary) | 0.4 (15.6) | 20 (16.5) | 19.6 (6.8) | — | — | ||||||||
| HRV | |||||||||||||
| Kouidi et al.60 (2009) | Yes | Stationary cycling, strengthening exercises | 3 | RPE 13 | 90 | 44 | Usual care | SDNN (ms) (secondary) | −1.1 (10.2) | 12.6 (16.3) | 14.0 (1.3) | — | <0.001 |
| Mean RR interval (ms) (secondary) | −11.4 (68.2) | 23.1 (61.4) | 34.6 (7.4) | — | 0.05 | ||||||||
| LF/HF ratio | −0.1 (0.3) | 0.3 (0.4) | 0.5 (0.042) | — | <0.001 | ||||||||
| Kouidi et al.49 (2010) | Noa | Stationary cycling, strengthening exercises with increasing workload and repetitions | 3 | RPE 11–13 | 60–90 | 52 | Usual care | SDNN (ms) (secondary) | −1.4 (7.8) | 60.9 (6.7) | 62.3 (1.9) | — | <0.001 |
| MSSD (ms) (secondary) | −0.2 (0.2) | 15.8 (2.19) | 16.0 (0.6) | — | <0.001 | ||||||||
| NN50 (ms) (secondary) | −0.2 (0.2) | 0.8 (0.2) | 1.0 (0.1) | — | <0.001 | ||||||||
| LF/HF ratio | −0.1 (0.1) | 0.2 (0.1) | 0.4 (0.03) | — | <0.001 | ||||||||
| Pereira et al.68 (2022) | Yes | Stationary cycling | 3 | Warmup and cool-down: 60%–70% maximal HR RPE 1–2/10 Conditioning Phase 70–80% maximal HR RPE 3–4/10 |
30 (5 min warmup and cool-down, 20 conditioning) | 13.036 | Usual care | RMSSD (not stated primary or secondary) | −3.2 (1.096) | 5 (3.054) | −8.20 (0.513) | 1.2 | 0.562 |
| SDNN (not stated primary or secondary) | −2.6 (1.336) | 8.3 (2.567) | −10.90 (0.458) | 1.2 | 0.49 | ||||||||
| SD1 (SD of instantaneous beat-to-beat variability) (not stated primary or secondary) | −1.9 (0.767) | 0.7 (2.006) | −2.60 (0.340) | 1.2 | 0.383 | ||||||||
| SD2 (long-term SD of continuous RR intervals) (not stated primary or secondary) | −5 (3.125) | 7.7 (3.030) | −12.70 (0.688) | 1.2 | 0.448 | ||||||||
| Reboredo et al.58 (2010)b | Yes | Stationary cycling, stretches | 3 | RPE 4–6 | 15-min warmup ≤35-min conditioning 1–3 min of cool-down |
12 | Usual care | SDNN (ms) (primary) | 13.4 (11.7) | −7.27 (10.9) | −20.63 (4.83) | — | Reported as NS |
| RMSSD (ms) (secondary) | 1.4 (3.19) | 1.5 (4.20) | 0.10 (1.60) | — | Reported as NS | ||||||||
| pNN50 (%) (secondary) | N/A (median and IQR) | N/A (median and IQR) | N/A (median and IQR) | — | Reported as NS | ||||||||
| LF/HF ratio | 0.1 (0.94) | 0.3 (1.08) | 0.20 (0.43) | — | Reported as NS | ||||||||
| Endothelial function | |||||||||||||
| Chan et al.54 (2017) | No | Ten muscle groups using free weights, tubing, and resistance machine | 3 | Week 1–4 RPE 12–14; 12–15 rep Week 5–12 RPE 14–15; 10–12 rep |
30 | 13 | Usual care | EPC count (secondary) | Pre: 0.044 (0.028) | Post: 0.039 (0.033) | −0.024 (−0.043 to 0.005) | 0.77 (−1.38 to −0.16) | 0.53 |
| Liao et al.50 (2016) | No | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 12–15 | 30 | 12 | Usual care | EPC count (secondary) | No accurate numbers reported | No accurate numbers reported | No accurate numbers reported | No accurate numbers reported | <0.05 |
| Cardiac biomarkers | |||||||||||||
| Graham-Brown et al.66 (2021) | No | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 12–14 | 30 | 26 | Usual care | NT-pro-brain natriuretic peptide (pg/ml) (secondary) | BL: 3566.0 (1220–11,121) Post: 2597 (1173–11,319) |
BL: 2515 (1015–11,443) Post: 3721 (1151–11,801) |
— | 0.2 (−0.2 to 0.5) | 0.9 |
| Toussaint et al.69 (2008) | No | Stationary cycling | 3 | No scaled target | None stated | 13 | Usual care | Brain natriuretic peptide (pg/ml) (secondary) | 351 (102) | −57 (70) | 408 (29) | — | — |
| Graham-Brown et al.66 (2021) | No | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 12–14 | 30 | 26 | Usual care | Troponin I (ng/L) (secondary) | −4.4 (7.347) | −37.3 (23.778) | −32.9 (3.087) | 0.86 (−10.8 to 12.5) | 0.9 |
| Baroreflex sensitivity | |||||||||||||
| Petraki et al.52 (2008) | No | Stationary cycling, strengthening exercises, flexibility exercises | 3 | RPE 13 | 90 | 30 | Usual care | Baroreflex sensitivity (ms/mm Hg) (primary) | 0.2 (0.5) | 1.4 (0.5) | 1.6 (0.2) | — | <0.05 |
| Cardiovascular-related hospitalization | |||||||||||||
| Graham-Brown et al.66 (2021) | Stationary cycling | 3 | RPE 12–14 | 30 | 26 | Usual care | |||||||
| Isnard-Rouchon et al.72 (2017) | No | Aerobic virtual reality exercise | 2 | 40–80 rpm without resistance | 30 | 104 | Usual care period | Number of cardiovascular hospitalizations (secondary) | 14 | 5 | −9 | — | Not reported |
| Cardiovascular mortality | |||||||||||||
| Greenwood et al.67 (2021) | No | Stationary cycling, lower-extremity muscular strengthening | Aerobic 3×, resistance 2× | 40%–75% VO2 reserve | 21–30 min of aerobic; three sets of lower-extremity muscular conditioning exercises | 26.07 | Usual care | Number of cardiovascular deaths (secondary) | 3/160 (1.9/100 person-years) | 2/174 (1.3/100 person-years) | N/A | N/A | N/A |
AI, augmentation index; CI, confidence interval; CO, cardiac output; DBP, diastolic BP; EPC, endothelial progenitor cell; HR, heart rate; HRV, heart rate variability; IQR, interquartile range; LF/HF, low-frequency/high-frequency; LV, left ventricular; LVH, left ventricular hypertrophy; MAP, mean arterial pressure; MD, mean difference; pNN50, percentage of adjacent NN intervals that differ from each other by more than 50 ms; PP, pulse pressure; PWV, pulse-wave velocity; RMSSD, root mean square of successive differences; RPE, rating of perceived exertion; rpm, repetitions per minute; SBP, systolic BP; SDNN, SD of NN intervals; VO2, rate of oxygen consumption.
a
Not included in meta-analysis because of concerns regarding heterogeneity (magnitude of change reported much greater than all other studies).