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Mechanisms of NPs-induced ferroptosis. (a) Membrane impairment induced by NPs involving LiPr and inactivation of system xc-; (b) lysosome dysfunction induced by NPs including disruption of lysosomal membrane, alteration of acidic environment, modification of STEAP3 and DMT1 activities; and (c) mitochondrial damage induced by NPs including destruction of mitochondrial morphology and dysregulation of the mitochondrial antioxidant defense as well as iron dyshomeostasis.
