. 2024 Apr 4;71:102574. doi: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102574

Table 1.

Characteristics of studies included in the systematic review.

Author	Year	Sex	Month	Country	Inclusion criteria	N	Reference population	Maternal education levels	Outcome	Adjusted covariates	Country income category	Quality
Grjibovski AM²¹	2004	Combined^a	12	Russia	Singleton Infants	1067	CDC	Basic, Secondary, Vocational, University (At least 3 years)	WAZ, HAZ	BF, Sex, SES, Preterm birth, SGA, BWZ-score, P, Prepregnancy maternal weight, Maternal age, Maternal occupation, Marital status	Upper middle income	Fair
Mesman I²²	2009	Combined	14	Netherlands	Singleton & full-term Infants	3171	WHO	<5 after primary, 5–10 after primary, >10 after primary	WAZ, HAZ, BMI-Z	–	High income	Poor
Hui LL²³	2010	Combined	12	Hong Kong	Singleton, full-term & healthy Infants	5949	WHO	9th grade or less, 10th to 11th grade, Greater than or equal to 12th grade	WAZ	Sex, GA, Birth order, Mother's place of birth, Father's education, Hospitalized for diarrhea by 3 months, Exclusively breast-fed >1 month, Second hand smoke exposure	High income	Good
van Rossem L²⁴	2010	Combined	1, 6, 24	Netherlands	Singleton & first births	2954	National reference	Low (less than 4 years of high school), Mid-low (college), Mid-high (Bachelor's degree), High (Master's degree)	WAZ, HAZ, BMI-Z, Overweight	BF, Sex, BW, GA (Only for BMI-Z at 24 mo)	High income	Poor (WAZ, HAZ), good (BMI-Z, Overweight)
Chen YJ²⁵	2014	Combined	1,6, 12, 14, 18, 24	Taiwan	All infants	21,193	WHO	Less than high school, High school, College and above	WAZ, HAZ	BF, Sex, GA, Method of delivery, Maternal age, Daycare caregiver at months	High income	Good
Hong SA²⁶	2017	Combined	6, 12, 18, 24	Thailand	Singleton & healthy Infants	4178	WHO	Primary school or less (≤6 y of schooling), High school (7–12 y of schooling), College or higher (≥13 y of schooling).	WAZ, HAZ, Underweight, Stunting, Wasting	Sex, Study site	Upper middle income	Good
Kachi Y²⁷	2018 (2001)	Combined	18	Japan	Singleton, full-term & not LBW Infants	34,503	WHO	Junior high school, High school, Some college, College or greater	WAZ	–	High income	Poor
Kachi Y²⁷	2018 (2011)	Combined	18	Japan	Singleton, full-term & not LBW Infants	21,111	WHO	Junior high school, High school, Some college, College or greater	WAZ	–	High income	Poor
Ballon M²⁸	2018	Boy/Girl^b	1,6,12	France	Singleton Infants & literate mothers	1735	WHO	Low (failed to complete high school), Intermediate (high school diploma to 2-year university degree), High (3-year university degree or more).	WAZ, HAZ, BMI-Z, Overweight	Center	High income	Fair
Mekonnen T²⁹	2021	Combined	1, 2, 6, 12, 18, 24	Norway	Singleton & healthy Infants	59,927	WHO	Low (≤12 years of education), Medium (13–16 years of education), High (≥17 years of education)	WAZ, HAZ, BMI-Z	Sex, BW, SES, GA, P	High income	Fair
Matijasevich A³⁰	2012	Boy/Girl	24	Brazil	All infants	4053	WHO	0-4, 5–8,≥9	HAZ	–	Upper middle income	poor
Howe LD³¹	2012	Boy/Girl	12, 24	South-West England	All infants	12,366	WHO	Less than O-Level, O-Level, A-Level, Degree	HAZ	–	High income	poor
Silva LM³²	2012	Combined	2, 6, 14	Netherlands	Singleton & first births	2972	WHO	Low (less than 4 years of high school), Mid-low (college), Mid-high (Bachelor's degree), and High (Master's degree).	HAZ, BMI-Z	BF, BW, GA, Maternal & paternal height, day care attendance	High income	Good (HAZ), poor (BMI-Z)
Dal Bom JP³³	2019	Combined	10–15	Brazil	Singleton	759	WHO	≤9 years, 10–12 years, or >12 years	HAZ, BMI-Z	Sex	Upper middle income	Fair
Diana A³⁴	2021	Combined	6, 9, 12	Indonesia	Healthy full term & breast fed infants	275	WHO	Less than high school, At least high school	HAZ	Sex, SES, Maternal height	Lower middle income	Good
Howe LD³⁵	2010	Boy/Girl	24	South-West England	All infants	12,010	WHO	Less than O-Level, O-Level, A-Level, Degree	BMI-Z	–	High income	Poor
McCrory C³⁶	2019	Boy/Girl	12, 24	Portugal	All infants	27,647	WHO	Primary, Secondary, Tertiary	BMI-Z	–	High income	Poor
McCrory C³⁶	2019	Boy/Girl	12, 24	Ireland	All infants	27,647	WHO	Primary, Secondary, Tertiary	BMI-Z	–	High income	Poor
Morgen CS³⁷	2017	Boy/Girl	5,12	Denmark	Singleton, full-term & healthy Infants	85,062	Internal reference value	<10 YEARS, 10–12 YEARS, >12 YEARS	BMI-Z	–	High income	Poor
Karaolis-Danckert N³⁸	2008	Combined	24	Germany	Singleton, full-term & healthy Infants	353	German reference	<12 y of schooling,≥12 y of schooling	Rapid weight gain	–	High income	Poor
Mendez MA³⁹	2011	Combined	6	Spain	Singleton & full-term	516	WHO	Primary, Secondary, University	Rapid weight gain	–	High income	Poor
Criswell R⁴⁰	2017	Combined	6	Norway	Singleton	778	WHO	<12, 12, >12	Rapid weight gain	–	High income	Poor
Rotevatn TA⁴¹	2019	Combined	10, 24	Denmark	Full-term & not LBW	19,894	WHO	Lower secondary education, post-secondary non-tertiary education, short-cycle tertiary education, or Bachelor's degree or equivalent and Master's/Doctoral degree or equivalent	Rapid weight gain, Overweight	BF, Sex, BW, P, Prepregnancy maternal BMI, GA	High income	Poor (RWG), Good (Overweight)
Anderson SE⁴²	2010	Combined	24	USA	Full-term & healthy	990	CDC2000	≤High school graduate, Some college, ≥College degree	Overweight	–	High income	Poor
Mastroeni MF⁴³	2017	Combined	24	Brazil	Singleton, full-term & healthy Infants	305	WHO	<9 years for the mothers who completed primary school, 9–11, ≥12 years for those who started/finished undergraduate courses	Overweight	BF, Sex, BW, P, Prepregnancy maternal BMI, Maternal age, Income, Marital status, Type of delivery, Smoking after delivery	Upper middle income	Fair
Feldman-Winter L⁴⁴	2017	Combined	24	USA	Singleton & healthy Infants	306	WHO	Some middle school, Some high school, High school graduate	Overweight	–	High income	Poor
Shay M⁴⁵	2020	Combined	24	Canada	All infants	1570	WHO	High school or less, Some or complete university/college, and Some or complete graduate school	Overweight	–	High income	Poor
Xinmei Chen⁴⁶	2020	Combined	24	Bangladesh	Healthy mother and infant	5752	WHO	≤9, 10–12,≥13	Overweight	–	Lower middle income	Poor
Zhou S⁴⁷	2021	Combined	12	China	Healthy mother and infant, singleton & first birth	10,537	WHO	High school or below, Junior college, University or above	Overweight	–	Upper middle income	Poor
Mamabolo RL⁴⁸	2003	Combined	12	South Africa	Full-term	276	NCHS	Primary, Secondary	Underweight, Stunting, Wasting	–	Upper middle income	Poor
Wightkin J⁴⁹	2007	Combined	12	USA	All infants	4694	CDC2000	≤8 grade, 9–11 grade, 12 grade, college	Underweight	–	High income	Poor
Mondal D⁵⁰	2012	Combined	12	Bangladesh	Healthy infants	147	WHO	No education, Educated	Underweight, Stunting	BWZ-score, Sex, SES, Prepregnancy maternal BMI	Lower middle income	Good
Barbara A⁵¹	2007	Combined	12, 24	South Africa	All infants	3275	CDC/WHO 1978 & CDC/NCHS 2000	<Matriculation, Matriculation	Stunting	Sex, SES, SGA	Upper middle income	Good
LL Jones⁵²	2008	Combined	12, 24	Philippines	Singleton	2513	WHO	Less than high school, High school and more	Stunting	Sex, SES, Maternal height	Lower middle income	Fair
Mongkolchati A⁵³	2010	Combined	6, 12, 18, 24	Thailand	Singleton & healthy Infants	4245	WHO	Primary school and lower, High school, College, University	Stunting	Sex, SES, Maternal height	Upper middle income	Good
Slemming W⁵⁴	2017	Combined	24	South Africa	All infants	3275	WHO	≤7, 8–10, 11–12, Post school training	Stunting	–	Upper middle income	Poor
Das S⁵⁵	2019	Combined	24	Bangladesh	Singleton & healthy Infants	211	WHO	No education, <5 y, >5 y	Stunting	–	Lower middle income	Poor

WAZ-score, Weight for Age Z-score, HAZ-score, Height for Age Z-score, BMIZ-score, Body Mass Index for Age Z-score, BWZ-score, Birth Weight Z-score, BW, Birth weight, BF, Breastfeeding, GA, Gestational age, P, Parity, SGA, Small for gestational age, SES, Socioeconomic status, WHO, World Health Organization, CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, NCHS, National Center for Health Statistics.

Combined: The effect size is reported for boys and girls combined.

Boy/Girl: The effect size is reported separately for boys and girls.