Table 2. Adjusted Association Between Residential Green Space and Children’s Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms (CBCL 1½-5 or 6-18 T Score)a.
| NDVI | b (95% CI) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Internalizing symptoms | Externalizing symptoms | |||||
| Unadjusted | Individual-level covariates | Individual-level covariates and average SVI | Unadjusted | Individual-level covariates | Individual-level covariates and average SVI | |
| Early childhood (aged 2-5 y) | ||||||
| No. | 1469 | 1463 | 1463 | 1469 | 1463 | 1463 |
| Average NDVI within 270 m | −1.59 (−2.28 to −0.87)b | −1.28 (−1.62 to −0.95)b | −1.29 (−1.62 to −0.97)b | −1.16 (−2.10 to −0.22)b | −0.77 (−11.53 to −0.02)b | −0.66 (−1.38 to 0.06) |
| Average NDVI within 510 mc | −1.59 (−2.40 to −0.79)b | −1.26 (−0.69 to −0.84)b | −1.27 (−1.67 to −0.87)b | −1.25 (−2.19 to −0.30)b | −0.83 (−1.62 to −0.05)b | −0.69 (−1.47 to 0.08) |
| Average NDVI within 1230 mc | −1.38 (−2.29 to −0.47)b | −1.10 (−1.59 to −0.60)b | −1.10 (−1.58 to −0.62)b | −1.05 (−2.00 to −0.10)b | −0.62 (−1.40 to 0.17) | −0.48 (−1.22 to 0.27) |
| Middle childhood (aged 6-11 y) | ||||||
| No. | 1172 | 1170 | 1170 | 1171 | 1169 | 1169 |
| Average NDVI within 270 m | 0.16 (−0.80 to 1.12) | 0.11 (−0.81 to 1.03) | 0.11 (−0.70 to 0.92) | 0.18 (−0.34 to 0.71) | 0.19 (−0.44 to 0.82) | 0.20 (−0.51 to 0.91) |
| Average NDVI within 510 mc | 0.22 (−0.82 to 1.26) | 0.15 (−0.85 to 1.16) | 0.12 (−0.79 to 1.02) | 0.20 (−0.31 to 0.70) | 0.22 (−0.40 to 0.84) | 0.25 (−0.45 to 0.96) |
| Average NDVI within 1230 mc | 0.26 (−0.69 to 1.21) | 0.16 (−0.79 to 1.11) | 0.09 (−0.81 to 0.99) | 0.07 (−0.55 to 0.69) | 0.09 (−0.63 to 0.80) | 0.13 (−0.64 to 0.90) |
Abbreviations: CBCL 1½-5 or 6-18, Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 1½ to 5 or 6 to 18; NDVI, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index; SVI, Social Vulnerability Index.
Coefficients (per 0.1 higher NDVI) from generalized estimating equation linear regression of the association between average green space exposure from birth and internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Models are (1) unadjusted and then adjusted for (2) individual-level confounders (birthing parent’s educational level, age at delivery, child sex, and preterm birth status) and (3) individual confounders and tract-level Social Vulnerability Index from birth. High social vulnerability corresponds with low socioeconomic status.
Statistically significant based on P < .05.
Sensitivity analysis of different buffer sizes for comparability with previous literature.