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. 2024 Apr 11;15:3156. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-47263-y

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — A Intracranial local field potential (LFP) and single neuron activity were recorded while we exposed subjects to visual and auditory stimulation pulses. B In this first paradigm, we exposed subjects to 10 s trials of visual (V, orange), audio-visual (AV, green) or auditory (A, blue) flicker at 5.5 Hz, 40 Hz, 80 Hz and random non-periodic stimuli, as well as no stimulation or baseline (total of 13 conditions). C Example of 40 Hz-V steady-state evoked potential (EP) in early visual area lingual gyrus in one subject. Top: raw LFP trace at the beginning of a 40 Hz-V trial. Bottom left: post-operative computed tomography (CT) scan overlaid on pre-operative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), with contact from which results are shown highlighted with white circle. Bottom middle: LFP response to 40 Hz-V flicker (orange) and baseline (black), averaged over 2 cycles of the stimulus. Bottom right: average power spectral density (PSD) plot of 40 Hz-V flicker versus baseline. For these last two plots, lines and shaded areas indicate mean +/− standard error of the mean (SEM). D Response to 40Hz-V stimulation across contacts (dots) located in early visual and auditory areas, on the Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI) normalized brain (top view), with color representing fold-change in power at the frequency of stimulation, capped at 10-fold increase to best visualize this range (n = 337 channels, 12 sessions, 12 subjects). Smaller gray dots indicate channels with no significant response. 34 contacts had modulation greater than 10-fold. The contact from which results are represented in (C) is highlighted with a gray circle. E Same as in (C) but illustrating 40 Hz-A steady-state EP in Heschl’s gyrus or transverse temporal gyrus (primary auditory area) from one subject during 40 Hz auditory stimulation (blue) or baseline (black). F Same as (D) but showing response to 40 Hz-A stimulation (n = 337 channels, 12 sessions, 12 subjects). One contact had modulation greater than the 10-fold threshold. The contact from which results are represented in (E) is highlighted with a gray circle. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.