Figure 1.

A functional muscle in healthy people is characterized by a proper balance of the redox system and mitochondrial homeostasis (green arrows). In DMD patients, the alteration of this balance contributes to constant muscle damage (red arrows). Many mitochondrial defects have been described in DMD and among these, excessive production of mitochondrial ROS (mtROS) constitutes one of the main sources of oxidative stress in dystrophic muscles, also enhanced by defects in the redox system. Abbreviations: NADPH oxidases (NOXs); xanthine oxidase (XO); electron transport chain (ETC); neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS).