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Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
System boundaries (limited by dashed line) considered for the LCA calculation to obtain 1 kg of instant cascara (functional unit) in the three considered processes. (A) Freeze drying, (B) only spray drying, (C) spray drying after membrane concentration.