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. 2024 Apr 3;25(7):3995. doi: 10.3390/ijms25073995

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© 2024 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Role of inflammation in PD pathogenesis. (A1 and A2): Pathological conditions like genetic mutation, protein aggregation, aging, and cytokine released from infiltrated T cells activate microglia. (B) The release of inflammatory mediators from microglia activates astrocytes. (C) Release of IL-B, TNFα, and ROS from activated astrocytes causes dopaminergic neuron degeneration. (D) Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons due to chemokine release from astrocytes. (E) The chemicals released from degenerating neurons activate glial cells and aggravate inflammatory responses. This figure is adapted under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Li-cense from reference [111].