Figure A4.

Schematic of the study design for examining the impact of time interval on the causal inference in the proposed IV-CLPM and the traditional CLPM models. A stationary time series was generated with two constructs (X and Y) and their respective instrumental variable (IVx and IVy) with bidirectional first-order lagged effects between X and Y. To this data, a series of two-wave IV-CLPM and CLPM models were fitted. Across the models, the first wave (T1) was fixed at an arbitrary time-point in the stationary time series, while the second wave (T2) was changed by an increment of one unit in every successive model. In so doing, the time interval ($\Delta T=T2-T1$) in the fitted models was increased sequentially from 1 through 50. This figure depicts the models with $\Delta T=1,$ 2, and 3.