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. 2024 Apr 13;11:384. doi: 10.1038/s41597-024-03236-w

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — Monthly observations of SST, SSS, and pCO₂ were acquired from various sources. The RAMA buoy (a) provides the sea-surface pCO₂ observations between November 2013 to December 2018. All ship-based observations (available in the SOCAT database) from 1991 to 2020 were used in this study (b). Further, additional ship-based observations available from 1991 to 2019 (denoted here as SAS data) were also included (c). The availability of pCO₂ data from coastal transects from 2007 to 2018 is shown in (d).