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. 2024 Apr 5;15:1369252. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1369252

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Copyright © 2024 Ju, Iwinski and Bost.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Model 1: A mediation structural model for supportive and non-supportive caregiver responses to a child’s negative emotions. EER, expressive encouragement responses; EFR, emotion-focused responses; PFR, problem-focused responses; MR, Minimizing Responses; PR, Punitive Responses; DR, Distress Responses; T1, Time 1; T2, Time 2; T3, Time 3. Model fit: χ2[104] = 144.84, p = 0.005, CFI = 0.959, TLI = 0.945, RMSEA = 0.033, SRMR = 0.043. Path coefficients a, b, c, and c’ represent unstandardized estimates (^*p < 0.05, ^**p < 0.01, ^***p < 0.001), with c and c’ indicating the total and direct effects, respectively, while the ab coefficient indicating the indirect effects. Bold lines show statistically significant pathways, and dashed lines indicate non-significant paths. Estimates are statistically adjusted for the child’s gender and race/ethnicity, parent education, and household income. Covariances among variables were not depicted in the figure for simplicity.