Figure 4. Summary of the recovered biogeographic processes using arrows, following our time stratification (from the oldest to the newest).

(A) A vicariant event at the split between Pelodryadinae + Phyllomedusinae, isolating both subfamilies from a wide-distributed MRCA; (B) a vicariant event originating the Phrynomedusa genus by the isolation of populations in the Central Atlantic Forest, the same biogeographic unit from where jump-dispersed the populations who expanded into the Western Amazonia and lead to the MRCA of (Phyllomedusa (Callimedusa + Pithecopus)) at 32.4 Mya; (C) a vicariant event, resulting in the emergence of Hylomantis and Agalychnis genera from a wide-distributed MRCA; (D) another vicariant event at the early diversification of Agalychnis genus, at the divergence of the Andean species A. hulli; (E) north-south pattern of diversification of P. burmeisteri group, whose MRCA jump dispersed from Western Amazonia giving rise to a diversification along Chaco and, subsequently, Atlantic Forest’ units during the early opening of DODL; (F) the divergent patterns of diversification in Pithecopus (north-south, colonizing the Cerrado by jump-dispersal in two waves) and Callimedusa (south-north, colonizing the Northern Andes by range expansion) genera, both taking place in the Miocene concurrently to the Pebas system. See Fig. 3 for info about the units’ colors and letters. Maps adapted from terrestrial ecoregions of the world (Olson et al., 2001; Dinerstein et al., 2017) to highlight geological events.