Table 2.

Theranostic potential of engineered exosomes for targeting CAFs mediated desmoplastic microenvironments

Theranostic	Payload	Target sites	Function	Desmoplastic tumors	References
Therapy	Antigens	CTLs, CAFs	Present tumor antigens to CTLs Reprogram CAF-mediated immunosuppressive microenvironment	Breast cancer, lung cancer and colon cancer	[33, 114]
	PH20, doxorubicin	ECM	Degrade ECM Enhance the activation and infiltration of CD8+T cells Promote the maturation of CD103+ dendritic cells Enhance drug delivery	Prostate cancers and breast cancer	[19, 108, 115]
	RGD, paclitaxel	ECM, tumor cells	Remove CAFs-mediated αSMA and type 1 collagen Enhance drug delivery	Pancreatic cancer	[116]
	MMP9 and MMP14	ECM	Degrade tumor collagens Enhance the infiltration of CD8+T cells Anti-PD-1 antibody	Breast cancer	[100]
	miRNA-494 and miRNA-542-3p	Stromal cells	Activate MMPs and degrade ECM	Pancreatic cancer	[117]
	Silenced dicer	CAFs	Decrease FAP and α-SMA level of CAFs	Ovarian cancer	[118]
	siS100A4	CAFs	Inhibit CAF-mediated lung metastasis of breast cancer	Breast cancer	[119]
	miR-5100	CAFs	Inhibit the CXCL12/CXCR4 axis	Breast cancer	[120]
Diagnosis	PKH26, DiR, cyanine, fluorescent proteins	Tumor tissues	Fuorescence imaging	Colon cancer and prostate cancer	[121–123]
	gold-iron oxide nanoparticles s	Tumor tissues	Magnetic resonance imaging Selectively damage tumor cells via thermal ablation	Breast cancer	[124, 125]
	99mTc, 131I and 111In-oxine	Tumor tissues	Single-photon emission computed tomography	Colon cancer	[121, 122]