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. 2024 Apr 22;15:3340. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-47093-y

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — A Xenopus limb development and regeneration. From an amputated larval limb bud, a complete limb regenerates, whereas from an amputated adult/froglet limb, an initial blastema is formed but subsequent morphogenesis is incomplete and terminates at spike formation. Red lines indicate the corresponding stage pairs between development and regeneration based on similarities in gene expression patterns shown in (D). B Axial patterning and growth observed in normal limb development and larval regeneration. Appropriate hox genes and morphogen expression are essential for normal morphogenesis including proximal-distal (P-D) elongation and anterior-posterior (A-P) autopod expansion. C Principal component analysis. D Number of genes with different expression levels for each pair of samples (FDR < 0.01). Since the number itself depends on the FDR-value as a threshold, the order of the numbers is of interest here. Pink shading indicates the development sample with the closest gene expression pattern to each regeneration sample. E Screening conditions for the three steps adopted. F The three screening steps for the detection of genes showing regeneration-specific expression changes. See the text and “Methods” section for details. The color in the leftmost panel shows the z-score for gene expression levels among the 6 samples. G Relative expression levels of hoxc12.L and hoxc13.L during Xenopus limb development and regeneration (the means of triplicate data). H Spatial patterns of hoxc12.L, c13.L, a13.L (an autopod marker), and a11.L (a zeugopod marker) expression within the limb bud during development and in the larval regenerating blastema. Both hoxc12 and hoxc13 are expressed in the prospective autopod region in the regenerating blastema (*), while during development, only hoxc12 shows clear expression restricted to the zeugopod (**). Each experiment was independently repeated three times for each gene with similar results. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.