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. 2024 Apr 23;14:9264. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-59338-3

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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The laparoscope rotation angle of motions for the two groups in the Pick &Place (PP) and lead-through (LT) tasks. De, Co, Mul-De, Mul-Co and Mixed represent the Single-decoupled motion, Single-coupled motion, Multiple-decoupled motion, Multiple-coupled motion and Mixed command motion, respectively. Dots are all rotation angles of a motion pattern sent by eleven participating surgeons across all paths and trials. The curve and box plots show data distribution. Note that no experienced surgeon used Multiple-coupled motion in the PP task.