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. 2024 Apr 23;14:9264. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-59338-3

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Total number of issued commands in the Pick &Place task for the trainee surgeons (light orange samples) and experienced surgeons (green samples). The four phases are grouped according to the task phases (VT is the view transfer phase and OP is the operation phase), while the correct sequence is a no-object phase, pick phase, object-holding phase and finally the placing phase. T1–T5 represent the five trainee surgeons and S1–S6 represent the six experienced surgeons. Red average lines are only used for visualisation purpose.