Table 2.

Summary of current treatment strategies and potential interventions targeting mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy in skeletal muscle atrophy

Classification	Therapeutic approaches	Atrophy models	Results	References
Medication	Mitochondria-targeted antioxidants	Cancer (C26 colon cancer cells) and chemotherapy-induced cachexia—chemotherapy (oxaliplatin plus 5-fluorouracil) muscle atrophy model	SS-31 prevented mitochondrial loss and abnormal autophagy/mitophagy, and muscle atrophy was alleviated	[121]
Medication	Targeting miR-142a-5p/MFN1 axis	Denervated muscle atrophy model	Restored mitophagy, apoptosis and mitochondrial function in denervated gastrocnemius muscle (note: complete recovery of muscle atrophy cannot be achieved)	[25]
Medication	Antioxidant Apigenin	Age-related muscle atrophy model	Alleviated age-related skeletal muscle atrophy by reducing oxidative stress and inhibiting overactive mitophagy	[122]
Medication	Mitophagy activator—urolithin A	Age-related muscle atrophy model	Improve muscle performance	[123]
Nutrition	Phytochemicals—tomatidine	Age-related muscle atrophy model	Increased mitophagy through the PINK1 pathway and delay muscle atrophy caused by aging	[124]
Medication	Mitophagy activators—rapamycin	Mitochondrial muscle disease model	Augmenting mitophagy is a promising therapeutic approach for muscle mitochondrial dysfunction	[125]
Medication	Antioxidants and antiinflammatory agents—isoquercitrin	Denervated muscle atrophy model	Alleviated soleus muscle atrophy and mitophagy	[126]
Medication	Anti-inflammatory agents—celecoxib	Denervated muscle atrophy model	Inhibited mitophagy and proteolysis, and ultimately alleviate denervation-induced muscle atrophy	[127]
Exercise (aerobic and resistance exercise)	Exercise training	Age-related muscle atrophy model	Exercise induced mitochondrial autophagy and enhanced mitochondrial function, and sarcopenia was alleviated	[128]
Exercise (myotube contraction)	Physical exercise (pulse simulation)	Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) induced skeletal muscle atrophy model	Enhanced mitochondrial autophagy to prevent MuRF-1 upregulation during cigarette smoke extracts (CSEs) exposure	[129]
Exercise (high-intensity interval training)	High-intensity interval training (HIIT) and citrulline (CIT)	Aging and obesity-related muscle atrophy model	HIIT enhances markers of mitochondrial fusion and mitophagy, and the combination of HIIT with CIT results in a more pronounced increase in muscle strength	[130]
Exercise (aerobic exercise)	Aerobic exercise training (AET)	Age-related muscle atrophy model	AET increases markers of skeletal muscle size and mitochondrial biogenesis and quality control in young men (YM) and old men (OM)	[131]
Exercise (endurance exercise)	Regular endurance exercise	Age-related muscle atrophy model	Regular endurance exercise promotes mitochondrial fission, mitophagy, and oxidative phosphorylation in human skeletal muscle	[132]