Fig. 4.

(a) Receiver Operating Characteristic curves (ROC) were utilized to predict surgical difficulty for both the training and validation cohorts. The training cohort is indicated by the solid black line, and the validation cohort is indicated by the solid red line. (b) The clinical utility is evaluated by performing a Decision Curve Analysis (DCA) analysis. The y-axis represents the net benefit, while the x-axis represents the threshold probability. The training cohort is indicated by the solid blue line, and the validation cohort is indicated by the solid red line