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. 2024 Apr 25;14:9495. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-60221-4

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Morphological and molecular changes of cells in the 3D tendon constructs. The ratio of the nuclear transverse length to its length in the direction of the channel length of cells in peripheral (A) and inner (B) layers (values closer to 1.0 indicates a rounder cell shape, and values closer to 0 indicate a more elongated cell shape). n = 3 constructs per group. (C) Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) results for tenogenic gene expression in 3D tendon constructs, including Scleraxis (Scx), Tenomodulin (Tnmd), and type 1 collagen (Col1a1). * indicates P < 0.05 and *** indicates P < 0.001 (n = 4–6 constructs per group). (D) Relative collagen amount of vehicle- and TGFβ1-treated 3D tendon constructs at each stage (n = 3 constructs per group at each stage).