Ethnopharmacological uses of fauna among the people of central Punjab, Pakistan

Abstract

Introduction

The utilization of fauna and fauna-based byproducts in ethnomedicinal usages has been a longstanding human activity, practiced across various cultures worldwide. This study focuses on investigating the utilization of animal-based traditional medicine by the people of Pakistan, specifically in the Gujranwala area.

Methods

Data collection took place from January to September 2019 through interviews with local communities. Ethnomedicinal applications of animal products were analyzed using several indices, including Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), Relative Popularity Level (RPL), Folk Use Value (FL), and Relative Occurrence Percentage (ROP).

Results

The study identified the use of different body parts of 54 species of animals in treating various diseases and health issues. These include but are not limited to skin infections, sexual problems, pain management (e.g., in the backbone and joints), eyesight issues, immunity enhancement, cold, weakness, burns, smallpox, wounds, poisoning, muscular pain, arthritis, diabetes, fever, epilepsy, allergies, asthma, herpes, ear pain, paralysis, cough, swelling, cancer, bronchitis, girls’ maturity, and stomach-related problems. Certain species of fauna were noted by informers with high “frequency of citation” (FC), ranging from 1 to 77. For instance, the black cobra was the most frequently cited animal for eyesight issues (FC = 77), followed by the domestic rabbit for burn treatment (FC = 67), and the Indus Valley spiny-tailed ground lizard for sexual problems (FC = 66). Passer domesticus and Gallus gallus were noted to have the highest ROP value of 99.

Discussion

The findings of this study provide valuable preliminary insights for the conservation of fauna in the Gujranwala region of Punjab, Pakistan. Additionally, screening these animals for medicinally active compounds could potentially lead to the development of novel animal-based medications, contributing to both traditional medicine preservation and modern pharmaceutical advancements.

1. Introduction

Zootherapy is described as the use of animal or animal-derived products to treat human ailments (1). The utilization of fauna with therapeutic characteristics is still a popular practice across the world (2). Zootherapy methods and materials are used in both folk and modern medicine to treat different kinds of sicknesses (3–7). It has been found that over 13% of the medications used in traditional Chinese medicine are derived from fauna. In Ayurvedic medicine, faunal products make up 15–20% of the medications. More than 111 medications in Tibetan medicine contain fauna-based components (8–10).

Many communities are rapidly losing ethnomedicinal expertise, making it increasingly necessary to capture this information before it is lost (1, 11–17). The utilization of fauna and fauna-based yield in folk therapy has been under-documented, most likely due to the dominance of plants in folk medical systems (18, 19). Pakistan has a rich fauna diversity, including 668 species of birds (20), 195 species of mammals (21), 24 species of amphibians (22), and 195 species of reptiles (23).

Gujranwala has a diverse range of fauna and biodiversity. This region, with its plains and different ecosystems, is home to an amazing variety of wildlife. Dominant avian fauna is documented in Gujranwala, i.e., Acridothere ginginianus, Acridothere tristis, Apus affinis, Athene brama, Bubulcus ibis, Cercomela fusca, Columba livia, Corvus splendens, Egretta garzetta, Hirundo rustica, Hoplopterus indicus, Milvus migrans migrans, Nectarinia asiatica, and Passer domesticus (24), while important mammalian fauna of the area is reported as, i.e., Suncus etruscus, Funnambulus pennantii, Rattus rattus, Mus musculus, Herpestes javanicus, and Herpestes edwardsi (25–27), and more than 30 species of freshwater are documented along Gujranwala (28), and prominent herptiles are Saara hardwickii, Varanus bengalensis, Duttaphrynus stomaticus, Hemidactylus flaviviridis, Hoplobatrachus tigerinus, Aspideretes gangeticus, Lissemys punctate, Calotes versicolor, and Eryx johnii (29).

Knowing the conservation and management of biocultural systems requires ethnozoological study. Traditional usages of fauna species, e.g., food (30–37), medicine (32, 38–42), trade (43), etc., can endorse attitude that aids in the conservation of these animals; however, if they are practiced in an unsustainable manner or are influenced by economic and political factors, they may have a negative impact on or even endanger these animals. Local populations’ usage of animal species in traditional medicine and for cultural purposes must be evaluated in connection to other issues such as climate and habitat changes (44, 45). There is a global need to identify innovative techniques to cope with the current catastrophe of loss of biodiversity (46), and ethnozoology gives crucial insights into local community practices, allowing conservation efforts to successfully collaborate with resource managers to enhance the overall veracity of biological structures (47, 48). A number of studies have been conducted to date that has documented the use of animal parts in traditional medicine in various areas of Pakistan (31, 32, 49–61); however, ethnomedicinal applications of animals in Gujranwala have never been described. This research on the medical applications of fauna by the people of Gujranwala district in Pakistan is part of a larger plan to record the usage of fauna by local populations across Pakistan (18, 29, 62–64). The research on the ethnopharmacological uses of fauna among the inhabitants of central Punjab, Pakistan, aims to investigate and describe traditional understandings and methods of using local animal resources for medicinal reasons in this area. By conducting an in-depth inquiry into the fauna-based remedies used by communities of indigenous peoples, the study hopes to contribute to the preservation of traditional healing practices, shed light on the possible medicinal qualities of these animals, and provide insights for the conservation of biodiversity.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Study site and climate

Gujranwala is the city and capital of Gujranwala Division, Punjab, Pakistan. It is also known as the “City of Wrestlers.” Gujranwala is Pakistan’s fifth-most populous city. Founded in the eighteenth century, Gujranwala is a relatively modern town compared to other nearby old cities in northern Punjab (Figure 1). The people of the area like to eat meat. The coordinates of Gujranwala are 32°9′24″N 74°11′24″E. Gujranwala has a hot, semi-arid climate. During the summer (June to September), the temperature reaches 40 °C. The coldest months are typically November through February, when temperatures can dip to an average of 5°C. During the other months, the average rainfall is approximately 25 mm. There is very little rain from October to May (Figures 2A,B).

Figure 1.

Study site map.

Figure 2.

(A,B) Famous meat (A: quail meat, B: chicken) and landscape of Gujranwala.

2.2. Data collection

Semi-structured interviews and questionnaires were collected from 100 respondents (i.e., traditional health practitioners, farmers, teachers, hunters, and herdsmen). We selected random respondents from the community who have knowledge about traditional therapy. Respondents were chosen based on their ethnomedicinal and ethnocultural recognition of the customary remedial and societal value of herptiles, fish, animals, and fowl. Birds were identified using field guides, “The Birds of Pakistan.” Data were statistically analyzed using five indices, including (i) the “fidelity level” (FL), (ii) the “relative popularity level” (RPL), and (iii) “rank order priority.”

2.3. The Fidelity level

FL was analyzed with the help of a formula as follows (65):

$$\mathrm{F}\mathrm{L}\left(\%\right)={\mathrm{N}}_p/\mathrm{F}\mathrm{C}\times 100.$$

where “N_p” = number of respondents with vital chronic diseases for certain breeds of animals; FC = frequency of citation for ethnocultural utilization of specific creatures.

2.4. The relative popularity level

RPL was described previously by Friedman et al. (66); creatures were separated into two gatherings, for example, (i) “famous” and (ii) “disagreeable.” (i) Popular creatures are those species that were expressed for the greater part of the most extreme recurrence of reference (FC). (ii) The left-over creatures were recorded as disagreeable. While for famous (creature species) an even line was non-existent specifically, the normal numeral of employments per creature is free of the recurrence of reference (FC), who perceives the creatures; along these lines, the normal numeral of employments of mainstream creature animal varieties does not improve with the addition to recurrence of reference, who refers to the creature species for any clinical use. For the mainstream creature species, the RPL was set at 1. For creature species in disliked gatherings, the overall notoriety level is under 1.0.

2.5. Rank order priority

ROP is utilized to group the fauna species (66, 67) and was examined using the following formula:

$$\mathrm{R}\mathrm{O}\mathrm{P}=\mathrm{F}\mathrm{L}\times \mathrm{R}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{L}$$

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Informant selection for ethnozoological data collection

During the years 2018–2020, ethnozoological information was gathered; prior to the data collection, a reconnaissance survey was conducted to ensure accessibility across the study area. Using the snowball technique, we collected the traditional endemic knowledge using semi-structured questionnaires followed by group discussions. The informants selected were mostly from urban (55%). Furthermore, the selected informants were classified into different professions and age groups. The maximum number of informants were educated (92.9%). Upon data collection, men showed ascendency over women due to cultural and religious limitations. Women are not allowed to talk with strangers due to religious and social norms, and they are usually involved in house chores. The complete details can be found in Figure 3. It is documented that older people have more insights about traditional knowledge as compared with younger people, and it is also noted that uneducated and less educated people have more reliance on traditional knowledge as compared with highly educated people.

Figure 3.

Selected informants on the ethnozoological usage of the documented species.

3.2. Taxonomy and ethnozoological inventory

In the ethno-scientific domain, we documented a total of 54 species used in Gujranwala, Pakistan, classified into different categories, i.e., herptiles (n = 7), fish (n = 16), mammals (n = 13), birds (n = 15), and invertebrates (n = 3). The complete inventory is provided in Table 1. The maximum usage of the fish species in the region can be attributed to the presence of the two important rivers (Ravi and Chenab) inhabiting varieties of fish fauna; also, the locals have a potential traditional knowledge of fish utilization.

Table 1.

A detailed analysis of the ethnozoology of Gujranwala, Punjab.

No.	Common name Scientific name (species authority) Punjabi name	Uses of body parts	Mode of use	Diseases	FC	RFC	Np	RPL	FL	ROP
Herptiles
1	Indus Valley toad Bufo stomaticus (Lutkin, 1862) Ghariallo daddo	S	T	Skin diseases	8.0	0.08	2	0.23	25.00	6
2	Indian Bullfrog Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (Daudin, 1802) Wada daddo	F	T	Sexual problems	13.0	0.13	3	0.37	23.08	8
				Pain in backbone	28.0	0.28	6	0.79	21.43	17
				Pain in joints	12.0	0.12	4	0.34	33.33	11
3	Indus Valley spiny-tail ground lizard Uromastyx hardwickii (Strauch, 1863) Sanda	F	T	Pain in joints	4.0	0.04	1	0.11	25.00	3
				Pain in backbone	23.0	0.23	8	0.65	34.78	23
				Sexual problems	66.0	0.66	28	1.00	42.42	42
4	Bengal Monitor Varanus bengalensis (Daudin, 1802) Goh	F	T	Pain in backbone	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
				Sexual problems	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
5	Rock python Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) Azdha sap	F	T	Pain in joints	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
				Sexual problems	11.0	0.11	7	0.31	63.64	20
6	Black cobra Naja naja naja (Linnaeus, 1768) Kala naag	S, F	T	Sexual problems	19.0	0.19	3	0.54	15.79	8
				Eyesight	77.0	0.77	13	1.00	16.88	17
7	Russell’s chain Viper Daboia russelii russelii (Shaw and Nodder, 1797) Koriwala	F	T	Sexual problems	9.0	0.09	2	0.25	22.22	6
				Pain in joints	7.0	0.07	2	0.20	28.57	6
Fishes
8	Grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes, 1844) Grass carp	B, M, F	T, O	Eye problems	7.0	0.07	2	0.20	28.57	6
				Blindness in night	6.0	0.06	2	0.17	33.33	6
				Enhance memory	10.0	0.1	2	0.28	20.00	6
				Sexual problems	19.0	0.19	3	0.54	15.79	8
9	Common carp Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758) Gulfam	B, M, F	T, O	Eye problems	8.0	0.08	2	0.23	25.00	6
				Blindness in night	3.0	0.03	2	0.08	66.67	6
				Enhance memory	13.0	0.13	3	0.37	23.08	8
				Sexual problems	10.0	0.1	2	0.28	20.00	6
				Enhance immunity	21.0	0.21	2	0.59	9.52	6
10	Silver carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes, 1844) Silver carp	B, M, F	T, O	Eye problems	8.0	0.08	3	0.23	37.50	8
				Blindness in night	3.0	0.03	1	0.08	33.33	3
				Enhance memory	23.0	0.23	2	0.65	8.70	6
				Sexual problems	28.0	0.28	4	0.79	14.29	11
				Enhance immunity	7.0	0.07	1	0.20	14.29	3
11	Mrigal carp Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton, 1822) Mori	B, M, F	T, O	Eye problems	5.0	0.05	1	0.14	20.00	3
				Blindness in night	8.0	0.08	1	0.23	12.50	3
				Enhance immunity	12.0	0.12	3	0.34	25.00	8
				Cold	10.0	0.1	3	0.28	30.00	8
				Sexual problems	7.0	0.07	2	0.20	28.57	6
12	Reba carp Cirrhinus reba (Hamilton, 1822) Reba Machhali	B, M, F	T, O	Eye problems	1.0	0.01	1	0.03	100.00	3
				Blindness in night	4.0	0.04	1	0.11	25.00	3
				Enhance memory	5.0	0.05	1	0.14	20.00	3
				Sexual problems	3.0	0.03	1	0.08	33.33	3
				Enhance immunity	5.0	0.05	1	0.14	20.00	3
13	Raho Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822) Raho	B, M, F	O	Pain in joints	8.0	0.08	2	0.23	25.00	6
				Sexual problems	36.0	0.36	18	1.00	50.00	50
				Eyesight	12.0	0.12	4	0.34	33.33	11
				Enhance memory	14.0	0.14	3	0.39	21.43	8
				Enhance immunity	12.0	0.12	2	0.34	16.67	6
14	Orangefin labeo Labeo calbasu (Hamilton, 1822) Kalbans	B, M, F	T, O	Enhance memory	1.0	0.01	1	0.03	100.00	3
				Pain in body	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
				Sexual problems	12.0	0.12	7	0.34	58.33	20
				Enhance immunity	10.0	0.1	3	0.28	30.00	8
15	Catla Gibelion catla (Hamilton, 1822) Thaila	B, M, F	O	Enhance memory	4.0	0.04	2	0.11	50.00	6
				Sexual problems	22.0	0.22	3	0.62	13.64	8
16	Spotted snakehead Channa punctata (Bloch, 1793) Dola	B, M, F	O	Enhance memory	5.0	0.05	3	0.14	60.00	8
				Enhance immunity	30.0	0.3	20	0.85	66.67	56
17	Great snakehead Channa marulius (Hamilton, 1822) Soul	B, M, F	O	Sexual problems	19.0	0.19	11	0.54	57.89	31
				Enhance potential	12.0	0.12	8	0.34	66.67	23
18	Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticu (Linnaeus, 1758) Tilapia	B, M, F	T	Enhance immunity	25.0	0.25	12	0.70	48.00	34
				Burn	4.0	0.04	2	0.11	50.00	6
19	Rita Rita rita (Hamilton, 1822) Khaga	B, M, F	O, T	Enhance immunity	13.0	0.13	7	0.37	53.85	20
				Sexual problems	7.0	0.07	4	0.20	57.14	11
20	Goonch Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton, 1822) Foji Khaga	B, M, F	O	Enhance immunity	21.0	0.21	9	0.59	42.86	25
				Sexual problems	25.0	0.25	9	0.70	36.00	25
21	Gangetic mystus Mystus cavasius (Hamilton, 1822) Tangra Machhali	B, M, F	O	Small pox	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
				Enhance immunity	16.0	0.16	2	0.45	12.50	6
22	Zig-zag eel Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepède, 1800) Baam Machhali	B, M, F	O	Sexual problems	7.0	0.07	2	0.20	28.57	6
				Enhance immunity	16.0	0.16	3	0.45	18.75	8
23	Wallago catfish Wallago attu (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Mali	B, M, F	O	Enhance memory	5.0	0.05	2	0.14	40.00	6
				Enhance immunity	11.0	0.11	4	0.31	36.36	11
Mammals
24	Cow Bos gaurus (C. H. Smith, 1827) Gay	B, M, F	O, T	Wounds in feet	12.0	0.12	7	0.34	58.33	20
				Pain in body	21.0	0.21	19	0.59	90.48	54
				Engulf of poisonous things	12.0	0.12	2	0.34	16.67	6
25	Buffalo Bubalus bubalis (Linnaeus, 1758) Mujh	B, M, F	O, T	Wounds in feet	12.0	0.12	8	0.34	66.67	23
				Pain in body	37.0	0.37	21	1.00	56.76	57
				Engulf of poisonous things	7.0	0.07	4	0.20	57.14	11
26	Camel Camelus dromedaries (Linnaeus, 1758) Ount	MI, BL, M	Oral Topical	Pain in muscles	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
				Pain in joints	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
				Diabetes	37.0	0.37	22	1.00	59.46	59
27	Goat Capra aegagrus hircus (Linnaeus, 1758) Bakri	MI	Oral	Sexual problems	41.0	0.41	22	1.00	53.66	54
				Cold	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
				Fever	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
28	Northern palm squirrel Funnambulus pennanti (Wroughton, 1905) Gulahri	M, H	O, T	Epilepsy	7.0	0.07	2	0.20	28.57	6
				Skin diseases	7.0	0.07	2	0.20	28.57	6
				Allergy	7.0	0.07	2	0.20	28.57	6
29	Small Indian mongoose Herpestes javanicus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilarie, 1818) Neola	F	T	Sexual problems	6.0	0.06	2	0.17	33.33	6
				Pain in joints	6.0	0.06	2	0.17	33.33	6
				Pain in backbone	6.0	0.06	2	0.17	33.33	6
30	Humans Homo sapiens (Linnaeus, 1758) Adam	SA	T	Herpes	27.0	0.27	5	0.76	18.52	14
				Ear pain	27.0	0.27	3	0.76	11.11	8
				Eye problems	27.0	0.27	5	0.76	18.52	14
31	Desert hare Lepus nigricollis dayanus (F. Cuvier, 1823) Jungli khargush	M, L, BL	O,T	Asthma	12.0	0.12	4	0.34	33.33	11
				Burn	12.0	0.12	4	0.34	33.33	11
				Face paralysis	12.0	0.12	4	0.34	33.33	11
32	Indian Pangolin Manis crassicaudata (É.Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803) Pangolin, Sipple	SC, M	T	Feet swelling	11.0	0.11	4	0.31	36.36	11
				Sexual problems	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
				Cancer	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
33	Domestic rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus (Linnaeus, 1758) Khargush, Saya	T, BL	T	Burn	67.0	0.67	34	1.00	50.75	51
				Enhance potential	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
				Face paralysis	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
34	Sheep Ovis aries (Linnaeus, 1758) Bairh	F, MI, M	O,T	Burn	26.0	0.26	22	0.73	84.62	62
				Enhance potential	26.0	0.26	22	0.73	84.62	62
				Pain in joints	26.0	0.26	22	0.73	84.62	62
35	Indian flying fox bat Pteropus giganteus (Brünnich, 1782) Chamga-dar	F	T	Pain in body	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
				Pain in joints	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
				Pain in backbone	2.0	0.02	1	0.06	50.00	3
36	Bear Ursus thibetanus (Cuvier, 1823) Richh	F	T	Sexual problems	3.0	0.03	2	0.08	66.67	6
				Pain in joints	3.0	0.03	2	0.08	66.67	6
				Pain in backbone	3.0	0.03	2	0.08	66.67	6
Birds
37	Common Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus, 1766) Lali	M	O	Cough	9.0	0.09	2	0.25	22.22	6
				Fever	9.0	0.09	2	0.25	22.22	6
38	Domestic Duck Anas platyrhynchos domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758) Batakh	E	O	Eye problems	9.0	0.09	2	0.25	22.22	6
				Cold	9.0	0.09	2	0.25	22.22	6
39	Mallard Anas platyrhynchos (Linnaeus, 1758) Nilsir	M, E	O	Face paralysis	4.0	0.04	3	0.11	75.00	8
				Cold	4.0	0.04	3	0.11	75.00	8
40	Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax (Temminck, 1828) Chhota baaz	F	T	Skin diseases	3.0	0.03	2	0.08	66.67	6
				Cancer	3.0	0.03	2	0.08	66.67	6
41	Spotted Little Owlet Athene brama (Temminck, 1821) Ullo	BL	T	Sexual problems	10.0	0.1	2	0.28	20.00	6
				Skin diseases	10.0	0.1	2	0.28	20.00	6
42	Blue Rock Pigeon Columba livia (F.Gmelin, 1789) Jangli kabotar	M, FE	O	Face paralysis	44.0	0.44	22	1.00	50.00	50
				Cold	44.0	0.44	22	1.00	50.00	50
43	Common Quail Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus, 1758) Batera	M	O	Enhance memory	10.0	0.1	7	0.28	70.00	20
				Sexual problems	10.0	0.1	7	0.28	70.00	20
44	Black partridge Francolinus francolinus (Linnaeus, 1766) Kala tittar	M	O	Bronchitis	19.0	0.19	11	0.54	57.89	31
				Enhance potential	19.0	0.19	11	0.54	57.89	31
45	Domestic Chicken Gallus gallus (Linnaeus, 1758) Murghi	E, M	O	Fever	35.0	0.35	35	0.99	100.00	99
				Cold	35.0	0.35	35	0.99	100.00	99
46	Bonnelli’s Eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus (Sibley & Monroe, 1990) Baaz	F	T	Cancer	3.0	0.03	1	0.08	33.33	3
				Skin diseases	3.0	0.03	1	0.08	33.33	3
47	House Sparrow Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758) Chiri	M	O	Enhance potential	35.0	0.35	35	0.99	100.00	99
				Face paralysis	35.0	0.35	35	0.99	100.00	99
48	Indian Ring Dove Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldszky, 1838) Kogi	M	O	Enhance maturity	5.0	0.05	2	0.14	40.00	6
				Cold	5.0	0.05	2	0.14	40.00	6
49	Oriental turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis (Latham, 1790) Kogi	M	O	Enhance maturity	5.0	0.05	2	0.14	40.00	6
				Cold	5.0	0.05	2	0.14	40.00	6
50	Little Brown Dove Streptopelia senegalensis (Linnaeus, 1766) Chhoti kogi	M	O	Enhance maturity	5.0	0.05	2	0.14	40.00	6
				Cold	5.0	0.05	2	0.14	40.00	6
51	Red Turtle Dove Streptopelia tranquebarica (Hermann, 1804) Lal kogi	M	O	Enhance maturity	5.0	0.05	2	0.14	40.00	6
				Cold	5.0	0.05	2	0.14	40.00	6
Invertebrates
52	European honey bee Apis mellifera (Linnaeus, 1758) Shahd Makhi	HO	O	Stomach	24.0	0.24	11	0.68	45.83	31
				Eye diseases	24.0	0.24	11	0.68	45.83	31
				Skin diseases	24.0	0.24	11	0.68	45.83	31
				Diabetics	24.0	0.24	11	0.68	45.83	31
53	Earthworm Pheretima hawayana (Rosa, 1891) Gandoya	WB	O	Pain in backbone	12.0	0.12	9	0.34	75.00	25
54	Common beak Libythea lepita (Moore, 1857) Titli	WB	O	Antibacterial	41.0	0.41	4	1.00	9.76	10

O, oral; T, topical; S, skin; SA, saliva; SC, scale; M, meat; MI, milk; F, fat; E, egg; WB, whole body; HO, honey; H, hair; FE, feather; B, brain; BL, blood; T, tail; L, liver.

Upon interpreting the results, it was revealed that different body parts of the documented species were employed against a variety of diseases. The most frequently used parts were meat (33%), followed by fat (30%), and brain (16%; Figures 4A–C).

Figure 4.

(A) Percentage of different body parts of fauna used to treat a variety of diseases in the study area. (B) The body parts are used to treat diseases. (C) Ethnopharmacological uses of body parts of animal species in the study area.

The fat of animals is the second most consumed body part of animals. The fat of 31 species of animals, i.e., Indian Bullfrog, Indus Valley spiny-tail ground lizard, Bengal monitor, rock python, black cobra, Russell’s chain viper, grass carp, common carp, silver carp, mrigal carp, Reba carp, raho, Orangefin labeo, catla, spotted snakehead, great snakehead, Nile tilapia, Rita, goonch, Gangetic mystus, zig–zag eel, wallago catfish, cow, buffalo, small Indian mongoose, Indian flying fox bat, bear, tawny eagle, and Bonelli’s eagle, is used to treat wounds in feet, small pox, skin diseases, sexual problems, pain in joints, pain in body, pain in backbone, fever, eyesight and eye problems, enhance potential, memory, and immunity, engulf of poisonous things, cold, cancer, burn, and blindness in the night (Figures 4A,B).

Similarly, the brain of animal species, i.e., grass carp, common carp, silver carp, mrigal carp, Reba carp, raho, Orangefin labeo, catla, spotted snakehead, great snakehead, Nile tilapia, Rita, goonch, Gangetic mystus, zig–zag eel, and wallago catfish, is used to treat small pox, sexual problems, pain in joints, pain in the body, eyesight and eye problems, enhance potential, memory, and immunity, cold, burn, and blindness at night (Figures 4A,B).

Similarly, the skin of animal species, i.e., the Indus Valley toad and black cobra catfish, is used to cure skin diseases, sexual problems, and eyesight, while the blood of camel, desert hare, domestic rabbit, and spotted little owlet is used to cure pain in muscles, pain in joints, diabetes, asthma, burns, face paralysis, burn, enhance potential, sexual problems, and skin diseases. However, the milk of camel, goat, and sheep is used to treat pain in muscles, pain in joints, diabetes, sexual problems, cold, fever, burn, and enhance potential (Figures 4A,B).

3.3. Ethnomedicinal use of herptile and fish

In the present study, we found that the local people use the herptiles and fish for different ailments. Sexual problems were found to be treated by most of the species, followed by “enhanced immunity” (Figure 5).

Figure 5.

Herptiles and fish species used to cure different kinds of sicknesses in the study area.

3.4. Ethnomedicinal use of mammals

The present study revealed that 23 diseases were treated by the documented mammals (Figure 6). The maximum use of the species to treat cold is due to the belief that the meat has the potential to overcome cough and cold. Also, meat is rich in protein, which in turn provides body strength.

Figure 6.

Mammalian species used to cure different kinds of sicknesses in the study area.

3.5. Ethnomedicinal use of aves and invertebrates

In the present study, 15 birds were reported to treat 13 diseases. The most frequent diseases treated were “cold” followed by “enhanced maturity” and “face paralysis” (Figure 7). Only three invertebrate species were documented, i.e., European honey bee, earthworm, and common beak, to treat different diseases. The European honey bee was recorded for ascendancy as the said species treated a maximum number of diseases (stomach, eye diseases, skin diseases, and diabetics), contrary to the other two invertebrates (Figure 8).

Figure 7.

Avian species used to cure different kinds of sicknesses in the study area.

Figure 8.

Invertebrate species used to cure different kinds of sicknesses in the study area.

3.6. Frequency of citation

In the present study, different species were reported by a different number of informants. The FC ranged between 1 and 77 (Table 1; Figure 9). The highest value of FC (77) was obtained for Black cobra (for eyesight), followed by domestic rabbit (for burn) with FC = 67, and Indus Valley spiny-tail ground lizard (for sexual problems; FC = 66). The lowest value of FC = 1 was recorded for the Orangefin labeo (to enhance memory) and Reba carp (for eye problems).

Figure 9.

A comparison of FC and ROP values.

3.7. The Fidelity level

According to Altaf et al. (18), FL is used for the identification of the species that are most preferred in a region by the local inhabitants for curing different diseases. Any species with the maximum medicinal uses in a region is known to have the highest fidelity level (54). A complete list of the fidelity levels of the documented species is provided in Table 1. The highest FL (100; Figure 10) was registered for Orangefin labeo, Labeo calbus (for enhanced memory); Reba carp, Cirrhinus reba (for eye problems); domestic chicken, Gallus (for fever and cold); house sparrow (to enhance potential and face paralysis); followed by cows (90.48) to treat pain in the body and Ovis aries (84.62) to treat burns, enhance potential, and to treat pain in joints. The lowest FL (8.70) was recorded for Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (to enhance memory).

Figure 10.

A comparison of FL and RPL values.

3.8. The relative popularity level

The relative popularity level (RPL) of the species can be seen in Table 1. We grouped the species into two categories (popular and unpopular; Figure 9). Species with RPL 1 are considered to be popular, and these include species, such as Indus Valley spiny-tail ground lizard, Uromastyx hardwickii; Black cobra, Naja naja naja; Raho, Labeo rohita; Buffalo, Bubalus bubalis; Camel, Camelus dromedaries; Goat, Capra aegagrus hircus; Domestic rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus; Blue Rock Pigeon, Columba livia; and Common beak, Libythea lepita.

3.9. Rank order priority

Rank order priority (ROP) is employed to assign an appropriate grade to the documented species with different FL values. The calculated ROP values for each species are presented in Table 1. Passer domesticus and Gallus gallus were the species with the highest ROP (99), followed by Ovis aries (62), Camelus dromedaries (59), Bubalus bubalis (57), Channa punctata (56), Labeo rohita (50), and Uromastyx hardwickii (42; Table 1; Figure 7).

4. Discussion

Meat contains nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances, water, lipids, sodium, magnesium, glycogen, lactic acid, potassium, iron, calcium, phosphorus, and chlorine (68, 69). Meat composition varies owing to the effects of many environmental elements and internal characteristics such as animal species, diet, muscle, breed, and sex (70). Poultry, cattle, sheep, goat, fish, and pork are the most common meat sources globally. However, in a few nations, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, camel meat is renowned as the primary source of animal protein that equals, and in some cases exceeds, the commercial importance of other meats (31, 71–74). Bones include up to 95% elastic protein, collagen fibers, and inorganic minerals such as calcium and phosphate, which help to prevent bone fracture. Ethnozoologists discovered that various species of animals, including the Indian gagata, horse, goat, fruit bat, deer, crow, crab-eating macaque, common carp, cinereous vulture, and alpine musk deer, were used to treat a variety of ailments, including wound healing, digestion, heart strength, ear ache, lumbago, skin, chest pain, and urine problems (18, 29, 55, 75–84).

Nanoparticles can operate as carriers for fish oil ingredients (85), preserving them from degradation in the gastrointestinal system and allowing for regulated release at particular locations throughout the body. Several forms of nanoparticles, including liposomes (86), nanoemulsions (87), and polymeric nanoparticles (88), have been investigated for encapsulating fish oil or its active components, such as eicosapentaenoic acid (89) and docosahexaenoic acid (90). Docosahexaenoic acid has received a lot of interest in the field of nanomedicine because of its potential health advantages and therapeutic qualities. These fatty acids play important roles in a variety of physiological processes, including cancer (91), inflammation (92), and diabetic problems (93). Omega-3 fatty acids in vertebrate fats have been shown to reduce inflammation. Ethnobiologists discovered that lipids are utilized to treat neurological disorders, atherosclerosis, thrombosis, and the effects of aging (32, 94–96). The previous published data showed that fats of various animals species, i.e., wild boar (Sus scrofa), turtle (Aspideretes sp.), streaked prochilod (Prochilodus platensis), sheep (Ovis sp.), mongoose (Herpestes sp.), bat (Pteropus sp.), lizard (Hemidactylus sp.), Irrawaddy, dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), Indus Valley spiny-tail ground lizard (Saara hardwickii), Indian rock python (Python molurus), Indian flap-shelled turtle (Lissemys punctata andersoni), Indian bullfrog (Hoplobatrachus tigerinus), horse (Equus sp.), Himalayan Serow (Capricornis thar), hen (Gallus sp.), jackal (Canis sp.), hare (Lepus sp.), green pond frog (Euphlyctis Hexadactylus), goat (Capra aegagrus hircus), deer (Cervidae), cow (Bos sp.), common leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius), cat (Felis sp.), buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and Asiatic black bear (Ursus sp.), are used to cure different ailments such as wounds and injuries, toothache (97), wound skin burn and crack, pain in back (26, 98), sexual stimulant (18, 26, 29, 82, 97, 99, 100), rheumatism (26, 82), pain in muscles (82, 83), menstruation problem (84), asthma (26, 82, 83), impotency (18, 29), head pain (98), erysipelas (83), ear disease, wounds (84, 97), cancer (29), asthma, wart (26, 97), arthritis (26), anemia, fever, paralysis (26, 83), allergy, wound, skin disease (26, 76, 83), allergy, typhoid, ear infection (82, 101), and pain in joints (100).

Milk is one of the most important and oldest foods. Mammalian species’ milk consists of lactose, ash, fats, proteins, solids, and water (102–111). Milk of different mammalian species, i.e., Panthera tigris, Ovis aries, Muntiacus muntjak, Homo sapiens, Equus caballus, Equus asinus, Equus africanus, Capra hircus, Capra aegagrus, Camelus dromedaries, Bubalus bubalis, and Bos taurus, is used to cure different sicknesses, i.e., enhance immunity, wound, whooping cough, skin burn, sexual power, red eyes, pain, muscular pain, jaundice, invigorative, hiccup, hepatitis, headache, gastritis, eye, diabetes, cough, cold, catarrh, and arthritis (7, 18, 26, 82, 84, 112–126).

The egg is a good source of protein and nutrients for people and a source of chemicals and elements such as “phosphorus,” “selenium,” “amino acid,” “iron, vitamins A, B6, B12,” and “folic acid.” Asthma, high blood pressure, breast cancer, bronchitis, burns, CNS, cold, diabetes, eye diseases, fever, hemorrhoids, indigestion, jaundice, mental disorders, night blindness, nourishment, sinusitis, sprains, tooth, weak eye side, weakness, and weight loss are all treated with eggs (18, 26, 37, 114, 115, 119–121, 124, 127–138). The egg has components that provide the best environment for an embryo’s development and growth. Except for vitamin C, it is a major source of important nutrients for humans. Eggs are an incredibly tasty and healthy item that can be utilized in a variety of ways (37).

Feather is utilized as a biomaterial since it is inexpensive and environmentally beneficial. Feathers are made up of “α-helix” and “β-sheet.” Bird feathers are utilized for decoration and as toys. Feathers of various species are used in traditional medicine, e.g., Phalacrocorax brasilianus, Nothura boraquira, Meleagris gallopayo, Coryus splendens, Corythaeola cristata, Coragyps atratus, Columba livia, and Ceryle rudis, to treat alcoholism, asthma, cough, cough, flu, headache, and typhoid (49, 82, 112, 113, 119, 121, 124, 133, 139–142). Feathers are used for a variety of purposes, such as antibacterial activity modification, biosorbents, cell viability enhancement, cosmetic micro- and nanoparticles, and wound dressing in industry. Graphene Oxide is utilized as a bio-composites, bio-fertilizer, biomaterial, feeding supplement, bioplastic, electrode material, fire-resistant substance, leather processing, paper formation, protein for ruminants, regenerated fibers, textile fibers, thermoplastic films, tissue reformation, and wound healing (49, 143–164).

Honey is composed of amino acids (165, 166), minerals (167), organic acids, phenolic compounds (168), solid particles (169), sugars (170), vitamins (171), water, proteins, disaccharides (172–174), and volatile compounds (175). Honey is utilized as a therapy in folk medicine to heal acidity, obesity, allergy, Alzheimer’s disease, asthma, atherosclerosis, burn, cancer, cold, cough, diabetes mellitus, diarrhea, expectorant, eye infection, gastritis, hypertension, influenza, migraine, skin, snake-bite, spleen, throat pain, tonsils, toothache, and urinary system (7, 18, 30, 81, 82, 84, 98, 115–117, 119, 120, 123, 124, 126, 137, 176–183). Honey is also used in nanomedicine to heal diverse sicknesses and behaves as oxidative stress, heart, blood pressure, anti-proliferative, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal endophthalmitis, anti-diabetic, anti-cataract, antibiotic, antibacterial, and anti-apoptosis (184–199). Many fauna species have been shown to be quite adaptable in their applications. The maximum relative significance levels may indicate that animals are easily accessible and affordable (200–202).

5. Conclusion

The folklore animal-based medicinal concept of Gujranwala communities indicates that people have a strong link with ecology. The ethnopharmacological benefits of the fauna in Gujranwala were documented for the first time. In addition, 54 fauna species are employed to treat various human ailments. Different body parts of animals (viz. skin, fat, brain, meat, milk, blood, hair, saliva, flesh, liver, scale, tail, egg, feather, honey, and whole body) are used to treat various diseases such as skin infection, sexual problems, pain in the backbone, joint pain, eyesight, night blindness, enhance immunity and memory, cold, weakness, body pain, burn, smallpox, wounds in feet, engulf of poisonous things, pain in muscles, arthritis, diabetes, fever, epilepsy, allergy, asthma, burn, herpes, ear pain, paralysis, cough, swelling, cancer, bronchitis, girls maturity, stomach, and antibacterial infections. The present results provide data that may be constructive for the conservation of fauna in the district of Gujranwala, Punjab, Pakistan. Screening of bioactive materials and “in vivo” and/or “in vitro” studies of the zoological activities of the species with the highest FC, FL, RPL, and ROP, may be significant for wild animal-based novel medications. Due to financial constraints, the local population lives in isolated, hilly villages that are far from urban areas, primarily involved in agricultural labor, home-based businesses, and livestock rearing. The locals heavily rely on medicinal flora to meet their basic medical needs. While nearby regions such as Malakand, Dir Lower, Chitral, and Swat have been thoroughly investigated for their medicinal plants, this study focuses specifically on Dir Upper. This investigation supported the theory that the local indigenous knowledge would differ significantly from its surroundings. Notably, 80% of people in developing nations rely on herbal health remedies. The primary healthcare needs are met in large part by local healers. Medicinal plants with significant UV protection were found to protect the studied area’s biodiversity. Unfortunately, anthropogenic practices, such as overharvesting, overpopulation, and grazing, endanger regional biodiversity. To stop the impending extinction of medicinal plants in the study area, initiatives for cultivating these species must be implemented immediately. This strategy will lessen the risks brought on by human activity and maintain the availability of vital plant resources for future generations.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Author contributions

AK: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – original draft. MA: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft. TH: Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing. AA: Resources, Validation, Writing – review & editing. Z-nM: Resources, Validation, Writing – review & editing. AH: Data curation, Validation, Writing – review & editing. SA: Data curation, Writing – original draft. US: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. MSA: Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. MM: Funding acquisition, Project administration, Resources, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. MH: Validation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. RB: Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. AMA: Conceptualization, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. MA-Y: Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. HE: Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. EM: Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. MHH: Methodology, Data curation, Writing – original draft preparation, Writing – review and editing.

Funding Statement

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This work was supported by the Research and Innovations “Ministry of Education” in Saudi Arabia (IFKSUOR3-095-6).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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