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A visual diagram outlining the step-by-step procedure utilized for participant selection in this study. Beginning with the initial pool of 514,866 individuals from the Korean National Health Insurance Service-Health Screening Cohort (KNHIS-HSC) database, a thorough selection procedure resulted in matching 8794 Parkinson’s disease patients with 35,176 control subjects through propensity score matching based on age, gender, income, and residential area.
