Table 2.

Characteristics of anthocyanins-based nano/microcapsules.

Encapsulation Method	Core Material	Wall Material	Capsule Size (µm)	Encapsulation Efficiency (%)	Remarks	Reference
Spray-drying	Chokeberry	Maltodextrin + Guar gum, gum Arabic, pectin, β-glucan, or inulin	16.29 (guar gum)–53.9 (gum Arabic)	78.6 (gum Arabic)–92.98 (guar gum)	Maltodextrin + guar gum microcapsules provided the highest protection during 7 days of storage. Water contents of microcapsules directly associated with degradation rate of anthocyanins during storage.	[104]
Double emulsion + complex coacervation	Black raspberry fruit extract	Gelatin and gum Arabic	35.34–80.22	29.67–38.54	Increased storage stability up to 23.66% after 2 months of storage at 37 °C.	[105]
Emulsification/internal gelation followed by spray/freeze-drying	Grape skin extract	Sodium alginate	0.56 (spray-drying); 99.8 (freeze-drying)	75.12 (spray-drying); 70.07 (freeze-drying)	Spray-dried powders exhibited higher encapsulation efficiency and light, thermal, and pH stability than freeze-dried powders.	[106]
Desolvation combined with ultrasonication	Red raspberry pomace	β-lactoglobulin	0.129–0.351	77	Anthocyanin-loaded β-Lg nanoparticles showed higher (19.23%) bioavailability compared to unencapsulated anthocyanin (11.27%).	[107]
Aqueous two-phase system-based encapsulation	Pure anthocyanins	Collagen + pectin/chitosan	-	92.58	All-aqueous template for loading hydrophilic bioactive anthocyanins.	[108]
Freeze-drying	Red raspberry	Soy protein isolate and gum Arabic	21.07–48.19	93.05–98.87%	Improved thermal stability in the temperature range of 80–114 °C, Improved anthocyanin retention (up to 48%) during storage at 37 °C for 60 days, improved anthocyanin delivery, and bioavailability during simulated gastrointestinal conditions.	[65]
Freeze-drying	Blueberry	Carboxymethyl starch (CMS)/xanthan gum (XG)	-	96.51–97.16	CMS/XG ratio of 30/1 provided superior antioxidant stability of microcapsules. Anthocyanin stability increased by 76.11% after the 30-day storage at 37 °C.	[109]
Ionic gelation utilizing dripping-extrusion and atomization	Hibiscus sabdariffa L. calyces	Rapeseed oil/pectin	78–1100	67.9–93.9	The half-life (t1/2) of the microencapsulated anthocyanins ranged from 7 (25 °C) to 180 days (5 °C).	[110]