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. 2024 Apr 9;25(8):4162. doi: 10.3390/ijms25084162

Table 1.

General methods for the characterization of phytosomes containing bioactive compounds.

Parameter Techniques References
Average size and shape

  • Dynamic light scattering (DLS)

  • Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

  • Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)

  • Cryo-TEM and freeze-fracture-TEM

  • Fluorescence microscopy

  • Atomic force microscopy (AFM)

  • Field flow fractionation

  • Size-exclusion chromatography

 [18,38,45,46,47]
[18,48,49,51,52]
[18,47,48,49,50,52]
[59]
[52,60]
[53]
[54]
[54]
Surface charge

  • DLS

 [51,52,55,56]
Chemical composition and structure

  • Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)

  • High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

  • Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

  • 1H NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy)

  • 13C NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy)

  • 31P NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy)

  • Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

  • Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD)

 [61]
[38,46,52]
[47,49,51,52,61,62]
[63,64,65]
[65]
[38]
[47,49,51,52,62]
[47,49,52]
Stability

  • 31P (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy)

  • Electron microscopy methods

  • DSC

  • DLS

  • UV–Vis

 [38]
[48,59]
[62]
[46,55,56]
[18,47,58]
Encapsulation
efficiency (EE%) and
release behavior

  • Mini-column centrifugation

  • HPLC

  • UV–Vis

  • Dialysis

  • Enzymatic assays

  • Gel electrophoresis

  • Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry

 [18,38,52,57,58]
[38,46,49,52]
[58]
[38,46,49,52]
[18]
[18]
[51]