Table 2.
Descriptive Values and Multilevel Modeling Results for Clinical and Cognitive Outcomes Across Time for American Elderberry Juice Intervention (n = 11) vs. Placebo–Control (n = 13).
| Baseline | 3 Months | 6 Months | Time | Condition | Time x Condition | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable | M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | F | p | F | p | F | p | η 2 |
| MMSE | 0.72 | 0.40 | 0.54 | 0.63 | 0.84 | 0.37 | 0.02 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 25.27 | 3.29 | 25.00 | 2.65 | 24.00 | 4.61 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 24.62 | 3.31 | 25.27 | 3.93 | 25.00 | 2.79 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| HVLT—Free Recall | 0.75 | 0.39 | 0.05 | 0.83 | 0.00 | 0.99 | 0.01 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 4.48 | 1.25 | 3.74 | 1.27 | 4.00 | 1.01 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 4.04 | 1.63 | 4.54 | 2.09 | 3.83 | 1.77 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| HVLT—Delayed Free Recall | 0.15 | 0.70 | 0.50 | 0.48 | 0.41 | 0.52 | 0.01 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 2.18 | 2.60 | 2.56 | 2.83 | 1.67 | 2.29 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 1.46 | 1.98 | 2.45 | 3.39 | 1.90 | 3.03 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| HVLT—Recognition # Hits | 3.35 | 0.08 * | 0.00 | 0.96 | 2.32 | 0.14 | 0.05 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 11.27 | 0.79 | 11.38 | 0.74 | 11.14 | 1.07 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 10.42 | 1.62 | 10.73 | 1.10 | 9.25 | 1.91 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| HVLT—Recognition FA-Related | 0.56 | 0.46 | 0.01 | 0.91 | 0.13 | 0.73 | 0.01 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 2.27 | 1.79 | 2.38 | 2.13 | 2.86 | 1.95 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 1.92 | 2.27 | 2.55 | 2.02 | 1.88 | 2.10 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| HVLT—Recognition FA-Unrelated | 2.08 | 0.16 | 0.46 | 0.50 | 0.39 | 0.54 | 0.01 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 0.64 | 0.81 | 1.25 | 1.28 | 1.29 | 1.38 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 0.92 | 1.31 | 1.27 | 2.00 | 1.12 | 1.73 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| HVLT—Discrimination Index | 3.69 | 0.06 * | 0.16 | 0.99 | 0.02 | 0.89 | 0.01 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 8.36 | 2.58 | 7.75 | 3.06 | 7.00 | 2.08 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 7.58 | 3.45 | 6.91 | 3.24 | 6.25 | 3.45 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| BNT—Total Correct | 8.48 | 0.006 *** | 0.84 | 0.36 | 0.53 | 0.47 | 0.01 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 56.45 | 3.14 | 57.56 | 2.30 | 57.11 | 3.55 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 55.23 | 2.83 | 55.91 | 4.44 | 56.55 | 3.67 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| REY CFT—Copy Total | 0.55 | 0.47 | 0.17 | 0.68 | 0.12 | 0.74 | 0.01 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 30.55 | 3.70 | 29.06 | 8.15 | 29.21 | 3.91 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 27.21 | 8.84 | 28.17 | 6.90 | 24.81 | 10.13 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| REY CFT—Delayed Copy Total | 0.31 | 0.58 | 0.46 | 0.50 | 0.58 | 0.45 | 0.02 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 4.32 | 7.43 | 5.12 | 4.63 | 3.93 | 5.56 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 3.29 | 5.30 | 2.50 | 4.89 | 4.12 | 5.42 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Anagrams—Total | 0.66 | 0.42 | 1.60 | 0.21 | 1.72 | 0.20 | 0.04 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 9.91 | 6.53 | 8.88 | 6.81 | 9.67 | 6.10 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 6.85 | 3.85 | 10.18 | 3.74 | 9.18 | 4.29 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Anagrams—Latency Total | 0.13 | 0.72 | 0.73 | 0.99 | 1.06 | 0.31 | 0.02 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 18.54 | 12.49 | 15.10 | 6.76 | 16.91 | 9.89 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 16.52 | 14.11 | 14.43 | 6.53 | 21.44 | 13.87 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| VPS—Total Correct | 0.84 | 0.37 | 0.33 | 0.99 | 0.60 | 0.44 | 0.02 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 2.73 | 2.20 | 3.22 | 2.22 | 3.25 | 2.19 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 2.46 | 1.85 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 3.27 | 2.05 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| VPS—Mean Latency Correct | 0.77 | 0.38 | 2.11 | 0.15 | 3.33 | 0.07 * | 0.06 | ||||||
| Elderberry | 43.31 | 34.41 | 33.71 | 25.05 | 23.20 | 14.45 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Placebo | 31.73 | 42.74 | 35.79 | 31.26 | 41.42 | 34.78 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
Note. For MLM interaction terms, η2 was used to describe effect sizes [small (η2 = 0.01), medium (η2 = 0.06), and large (η2 = 0.14); [36,37]; MMSE = Mini-Mental State Examination; HVLT = Hopkins Verbal Learning Test; FA = False Alarm; BNT = Boston Naming Test; REY CFT = Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure Test; VPS = Visuospatial Problem Solving, # = Number. MLM models were also conducted with sex as a covariate. The sex covariate was non-significant, and results remained similar across all outcomes. Thus, it was not considered further, and results are presented without including sex in MLM models. * p < 0.10 (trending); *** p < 0.01