Figure 3.

Schematic overview of pathologic neuroinflammation progression. Chronic or traumatic stresses, age-related microglial sensitivity, and the protracted inflammation of neurons, which cause the significant release of cytokines, significantly enhance the overall turnover rate of microglia. Cytokines and secondary messengers such as ROS, PG, and NO interfere with nerve cells’ ability to function normally. NF-κB, PI3K, and MAPK pathway failures are the first cause of progressive cell degeneration. ROS: reactive oxygen species; PG: prostaglandins; NO: nitric oxide; NF-κB: nuclear factor-kapa B; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase.