Table 2.

Comparison of existing communication technologies.

Parameters	Standard	Frequency	Data Rate	Transmission Range	Energy Consumption	Cost	Limitations
Wi-Fi	IEEE 802.11 [59]	2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands	11–50 and 150 Mbps	20–100 m	High	High	High power consumption, limited range compared to other long-range technologies, and susceptibility to interference.
ZigBee	Zigbee Alliance IEEE 802.15.4 [60]	2.4 GHz and 868/915 MHz bands	20, 40, and 250 kbps	10–100 m	Low	Low	Line-of-sight connectivity should exist between the sensor node and the coordinator node.
Long-Range (LoRa)	Lora Alliance IEEE 802.15.4 [61]	Unlicensed ISM bands 868/915 MHz	50 kbps	<30 km	Very low	High	Low data rates, not suitable for high-bandwidth applications, scalability of the network, and capacity for messages.
SigFox	IEEE 802.15.4 [62]	Unlicensed ISM bands 868/915/433 MHz	100 bps	10–40 km	Low	Medium	Very low data rates, limited uplink capabilities, and a low payload limit for transmitted messages.
RFID	ISO/IEC 14443, ISO/IEC 15693. [63]	25 kHz, 13.56 MHz, and 860–960 MHz	40 to 160 kbp/s	1–5 m	Low	Low	Short-range, limited data storage on passive RFID tags, and potential for signal reflection and interference.
Mobile communication	N/A	Licensed bands 900–1800 MHz	Up to 170 kbps	1–10 km	Medium	Medium	Relatively high power consumption, especially for mobile devices, and may not be cost-effective for certain IoT applications.
Bluetooth	IEEE 802.15.1 [64]	2.4 GHz ISM band	1 to 3 Mps	1 to 10 m	Low	Low	Moderate range, higher power consumption compared to low-power technologies, and potential interference in crowded areas.
NB-IoT	3GPP release 13 [65]	LTE frequency bands	200 kbps	11–0 Km	Medium	High	Limited data rates, not suitable for applications requiring high bandwidth, and potential latency in communication.