Table 1.
Summary of representative studies comparing different exercise timings.
| Reference | Population | Meal | Exercise Protocols * | Post-Meal Glucose Response |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bellini et al. (2021) [23] a | 27 H in two of six studies (Study 1: 14, 8 M and 6 F, 25 ± 2 years old; Study 4: 13, 8 M and 5 F, 23 ± 1 yrs) | MM: ~75% CHO of total EI (1 g of CHO per kg of BW). | Study 1: Ti: 30 min vs. 60 min vs. 90 min after the meal T: A (walking) D: 60 min I: 120 spm Study 4: Ti: 45 min pre-meal vs. 15 vs. 30 min after the meal T: A (walking) D: 30 min I: 120 spm |
Study 1: ↓ with all timings. Study 4: ↓ with 15 and 30 min post-meal, greater effects at 15 min. |
| Heden et al. (2015) [27] a | 13 T2D (5 M and 8 F, 48.5 ± 11.9 years old) | Three MMs: ~50% CHO. | Ti: 20–30 min before vs. 45 min after the meal T: R D: 3 × 10 reps I: 10 RM |
↓ with pre- and post-meal exercise. |
| Hatamoto et al. (2017) [30] a | 11 H (11 M, 23 ± 2 years old) | Three MMs: 113.8 ± 16.6 g (69 ± 3% of EI) CHO for B, 104.5 ± 0.1 g (57 ± 2% of EI) CHO for L and 131.6 ± 11.7 (58 ± 2% of EI) CHO for D. | Ti: 30 min before vs. after each meal T: A (jogging) D: 20 × 1 min with 30 s of rest (60 min in total) I: Individuals’ LT |
↓ with post-meal exercise, more than pre-meal. |
| Nygaard et al. (2017) [33] a | 12 IGT (8 M and 4 F, 65 ± 8 years old) | MM: 1 g of CHO per kg of BW (74 ± 9 g) for B, 52 ± 19 g CHO for L, 51 ± 17 g CHO for D, and 59 ± 33 g CHO for the evening meal. | Ti: 1.5 h before vs. 30 min after B T: A (walking) D: 60 min I: 8% treadmill inclination, individual speed (12 on Borg’s RPE scale) |
↓ with post-meal exercise. |
| Solomon et al. (2020) [34] a | 48 H (Group 1: 16, 11 M and 5 F, 31 ± 11 years old; Group 2: 16, 5 M and 11 F, 24 ± 7 years old; Group 3: 9 M and 7 F, 29 ± 12 years old) | MM: 57% CHO of EI (71 g). | Ti: Immediately before vs. after the end of the meal vs. 30 min after the end of the meal T: Standing (Group 1) vs. walking (Group 2) vs. R (Group 3) D: 30 min (Groups 1 and 2) 3 × 10 repetitions (Group 3) I: Self-selected brisk pace (Group 2) and BW (Group 3) |
↓ with immediate post-meal exercise. |
| Colberg et al. (2009) [35] b | 12 T2D (6 M and 6 F, 61.4 ± 2.7 years old) | MM: 43–54 g CHO. | Ti: Immediately before vs. 15–20 min after the meal T: A (walking) D: 20 min I: Self-selected pace (moderate) |
↓ with post-meal exercise. |
| Yoko et al. (2021) [36] a | 11 H (5 M and 6 F, 42.7 ± 9.4 years old) | MM: 40 g of CHO. | Ti: 20 min before vs. 40 min after the meal. T: A (walking) vs. R D: 20 min I: 4–6 km/h (A) and BW (R) |
↓ with post-meal A. |
| Reynolds and Venn (2018) [37] a | 78 H (Group 1: 38, 6 M and 32 F, 21.4 ± 1.35 years old; Group 2: 40, 10 M and 30 F, 22.3 ± 5.16 years old) | MM: 50 g of CHO. | Ti: 15 min (Group 1) vs. 45 min (Group 2) after the meal T: A (cycling) D: 10 min I: 40 rpm, no resistance |
↓ with timing set at 45 min after the meal. |
| Zhang et al. (2021) [38] a | 20 H (20 M, 23.0 ± 4.26 years old) | MM: 73% CHO of EI (1 g of CHO per kg of BW). | Ti: At the individuals’ glucose peak vs. 20 min before the individuals’ glucose peak T: A (walking) D: 30 min I: 50% VO2max |
↓ with both timings, greater effects before the peak. |
| Huang et al. (2018) [40] a | 26 T2D (12 M and 14 F, 53.8 ± 8.6 years old) | Four MMs: 40–50% CHO of daily EI. B consisted of 30% of TDEI. | Ti: 30 min vs. 60 min vs. 90 min after B T: A (cycling) D: 6 × 1 min + 3 min of recovery (27 min in total) I: 85% Wmax (active phase) and 40% Wmax (recovery) |
↓ with all timings, greater effects at 30 min. |
| Chang et al. (2023) [47] a | 35 T2D (Group 1: 19, 10 M and 9 F, 65.9 ± 6.1 years old; Group 2: 16, 8 M and 8 F, 62.3 ± 7.4 years old) | Normal dietary habits. | Ti: 30 min before (Group 1) vs. 90 min after (Group 2) the individuals’ glucose peak T: A (self-selected) D: 22 min/day for 2 weeks I: Self-selected (moderate) |
No changes with both timings. |
| Haxhi et al. (2016) [49] a | 9 T2D (9 M, 58.2 ± 6.6 years old) | MM: 55–60% of CHO of EI. | Ti: 40 min after vs. immediately before (1st bout) and 40 min after (2nd bout) the beginning of the meal T: A (walking) D: 40 min vs. 2 × 20 min I: 50% HRR |
↓ with split (2 × 20 min bouts) exercise. |
| Sacchetti et al. (2021) [50] a | 9 H (9 M, 29 ± 3 years old) | MM: 55–60% of CHO of EI. |
Ti: 40 min after vs. 30 min before (1st bout) and 40 min after (2nd bout) the beginning of the meal T: A (cycling) D: 40 min vs. 2 × 20 min I: 65% VO2max |
↓ with both exercise strategies. |
Notes. *, protocols are reported as timing (Ti), type (T), duration/volume (D), and intensity (I); a, data are reported as mean ± SD; b, data are reported as mean ± SEM. Abbreviations. H, healthy; M, male; F, female; MM, mixed meal; CHO, carbohydrates; EI, energy intake; BW, bodyweight; A, aerobic exercise; spm, steps per minute; ↓, reductions in post-meal glycemia; T2D, type 2 diabetes; R, resistance exercise; RM, repetition maximum; B, breakfast; L, lunch; D, dinner; LT, lactate threshold; IGT, impaired glucose tolerance; RPE, rate of perceived exertion; rpm, rotations per minute; VO2max, volume of maximal oxygen uptake; TDEI, total daily energy intake; Wmax, maximal power; HRR, heart rate reserve.