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. 2024 Mar 23;38(3):353–367. doi: 10.1007/s40259-024-00650-9

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Stem cells injected into the corpus cavernosum may act in three ways: 1. Stem cells migrate directly to the site of injury and differentiate into neuronal cells, endothelial cells, and smooth muscle cells; 2. stem cells may produce paracrine angiogenic factors, neurostimulatory factors, immunomodulatory factors, and anti-apoptotic factors; 3. stem cells may play a role in cytotoxicity by releasing microvesicles and exosomes.