Figure 5.

Chloroplast metabolism emphasizing the lower glycolytic pathway. The TPT (circles on the chloroplast membrane) exchanges DHAP, GAP, and PGA. The PEP/phosphate antiporter exchanges PEP for phosphate. The production of PEP inside the chloroplast is restricted by very low phosphoglyceromutase and enolase activities (denoted with X). Pyruvate is generated at a rate of ∼0.5% of total carboxylations, directly providing pyruvate for chloroplast reactions (line connecting rubisco to pyruvate). Additional products of the Calvin–Benson cycle include shikimate pathway products (e.g. aromatic amino acids), isoprenoids, and pentoses. See Raines (2011, 2022) (Fig. 1) for a more complete depiction of export sites from the Calvin–Benson cycle.