Fig. 18.

Challenges and opportunities in the development of 4D bioprinted dynamic tissues and organs. (a) (i) Smart path design based on medical imaging, 3D reconstruction, and CAD design, (ii) smart bioink preparation based on the target tissues/organs, involving cell selection, material selection, and biomolecules. (b) 4D bioprinting process using different bioprinting technologies, carried out based on smart design and bioink. (c) Post-4D bioprinting process, including the shape-morphing process under suitable stimuli, in vitro development for tissue maturation, and the transplantation of tissues and organs into patients with tissue/organ dysfunction and failure. (d) Challenges and opportunities in the future development of 4D bioprinting.