Table 4.
Smart composite biomaterials for 4D printing.
| Composite | Printer type | Mechanism for 4D effect | External stimuli | Application | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NIPPAm + Laponite nanoclay + NFC + glucose + glucose oxidase | MEB | In-plane force induced by the alignment of NFC | Water or heat | Biomimetic structures | [35] |
| Agarose + polyacrylamide + Laponite nanoclay | MEB | Sol-gel transition of agarose | Temperature | Tissue engineering | [146] |
| Fe3O4 + PLA | MEB | Shape memory effect of PLA | Magnetic field | Vascular stents | [113,148] |
| Fe3O4 + PLA + thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) | FDM | Shape memory polymers | Magnetic field | Biomimetic structures | [150] |
| Poly-hydroxybutyrate/PCL + Fe3O4 + cellulose nanofiber | FDM | Shape memory polymer | Magnetic field | __ | [149] |
| Black phosphorus nanosheets/TCP/PDLLA-co-TMC | MEB | Shape memory polymer | NIR-irradiation | Bone tissue engineering | [80] |
| Hydroxyapatite + collagen | MEB | Leaching of the constituent components from printed structs to form fibrous bindles | Solvent leaching | Bone tissue engineering | [151] |