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. 2024 May 2;4:29. doi: 10.1186/s44158-024-00167-1

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — Mini-invasive and non-invasive neurostimulation techniques. The mini-invasive (i.e. pulsed radiofrequency therapy and percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation) and non-invasive (i.e. transcranial direct current stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and transcranial focused ultrasound) techniques for neurostimulation of chronic pain are schematized in the representation alongside their current indications with clear ( +) or unclear ( ±) evidence. The specific characteristics of each modality are explained in the text