Table 1.
Nanoparticles in autophagy regulation.
| Nanostructure | Applied agents in nanoparticle synthesis | Drug/gene delivery | Zeta potential (mV) Particle size (nm) | In vitro/in vivo | Cell line/animal model | Remarks | Refs |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Polymeric nanoparticles | Selenium Hydroxyapatite | – | 50–100 nm | In vitro In vivo | MNNG/HOS cells Orthotropic xenograft mouse model | Selenium plays a part in chemotherapy. Bone repair is provided by hydroxyapatite. Raising the amount of ROS JNK signaling being triggered and Akt/mTOR signaling being inhibited Causing cancer cells to undergo autophagy and apoptosis | [81] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles | Selenium | Laminarin Chloroquine | 60 nm | In vitro | HepG2 cells | causing cancer cells to undergo both autophagy and apoptosis Up regulating p62 and LC3-II in the induction of autophagy Using chloroquine to block autophagy causes cell death | [82] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles | Selenium | – | 30 nm | In vitro | HCT116 cells | Beclin-1 up regulation Activating autophagy in cancer cells to accelerate their demise | [83] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles (PLGA and succinate) | – | Doxorubicin Chloroquine | – | In vitro | A549 cells | doxorubicin's protection via autophagy inhibition and improved nuclear translocation of this chemotherapy drug | [84] |
| Polystyrene nanoparticles | Amino groups | – | +37 to − 56.7 mV | In vitro | OVCAR3 cells | Autophagy inhibition increases anti-tumour action that exhibits time- and concentration-dependent behaviour. | [85] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles | PEI PLGA | Paclitaxel | +21.7 mV 80 nm | In vitro | U251 cells | Preventing the growth and invasion of cancerous cells LC3-II and autophagosome accumulation are important in initiating autophagy. | [86] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles | – | HGFK1 Sorafenib | +6.68 mV 106.67 nm | In vitro In vivo | 786-O, and ACHN cells Xenograft mouse model | inhibiting the development of tumours enhancing the survival of mice demonstrating the combinatorial effects of sorafenib reducing sorafenib-mediated autophagy by HGFK1 administration | [87] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles | PLGA | Curcumin GANT61 | 213.3 mV 190–400 nm | In vitro | MCF-7 cells | reducing the ability of cancer stem cells to self-renew lowering the survival of cancer cells by inducing both autophagy and apoptosis | [88] |
| Selenium nanoparticles | – | – | 27.5 nm | In vitro | MCF-7 cells | Selenium nanoparticles and radiation have a synergistic effect by inducing autophagy and raising ROS levels. | [89] |
| Lipid nanoparticles | – | – | +29.8 mV Up to 136 nm | In vitro | Hela cells | Bcl-2 expression is down regulated during endoplasmic stress to initiate autophagy. | [90] |
| Au–Ag nanoparticles | Polydopamine | – | 200 nm | In vitro In vivo | T24 cells Xenograft model | Delivering photo-thermal treatment and raising ROS concentrations Activating the ERK and Akt signaling pathway promoting both apoptosis and autophagy | [91] |
| Au nanoparticles | Valine | – | −29 mV 20 nm | In vitro In vivo | MDA-mB-231 cells Mouse model | Increasing ROS concentrations Activating autophagy Applying cytotoxicity to cancerous cells | [92] |
| Au nanoparticles | – | Quercetin | −19.1 mV 106.7 nm | In vitro In vivo | U87 cells Nude mice | decreasing cell viability in a way depending on concentration and time suppressing the expression of PI3K/Akt and mTOR Up regulation of ERK and LC3-II triggering autophagy | [93] |
| Super-paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles | – | AGO2 MiRNA-3765B | −20 mV 70 nm | In vitro In vivo | MCF7 and MDA-MB-453 cells Xenograft nude mice | demonstrating anti-tumour action and increasing cisplatin's cytotoxicity against cancer cells suppression of autophagy lowering the expressions of ATG4C and Beclin-1 | [94] |
| Zinc oxide nanoparticles | – | – | 20 nm | In vitro | SKOV3 cells | Cancer cell viability declining p53 and LC3 up regulation Encouragement of autophagy | [95] |
| Zinc oxide nanoparticles | – | – | −5.01 mV 172 nm | In vitro In vivo | MCF-7 cells Animal models of 4 T1 tumour cells | Increasing ROS concentrations Increasing ATG5 Activating autophagy | [96] |
| Hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles | – | Hydroxychloroquine | +41.15 to − 26.50 mV 48.8 nm | In vitro In vivo | HCT116 cells Xenograft model | Growing hydroxy-chloroquine intracellular accumulation preventing autophagy as a means of promoting survival Increasing radiation's cytotoxicity for cancer treatment | [97] |
| Silica nanoparticles | – | – | 86 nm | In vitro | HCT116 cells | Colon cancer treatment via influencing the endoplasmic reticulum to induce autophagy raising the LC3-II levels | [98] |
| Mesoporous silica nanoparticles | Poly-dopamine | Chloroquine Glucose consumer glucose oxidase | Up to 235 nm | In vitro In vivo | HepG2 cells Tumour bearing mice | The malnutrition that GOx causes in cancer cells Providing photo-thermal treatment Increasing the potential for autophagy inhibition to decrease cancer by fasting and photo-thermal treatment | [99] |
| Cuprous oxide nanoparticles | – | – | – | In vitro In vivo | J82, T24, 5637, UMUC-3 cells Xenografts | Causing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest; decreasing the survival of cancer cells in a way depending on time and concentration to increase apoptotic cell death, ERK signaling up regulation and autophagy activation are important. | [100] |
| TiO2 nanoparticles | – | 5-Fluorouracil | 20–30 nm | In vitro | AGS cells | Raising ROS levels causing lysosomal function disruptions inhibiting autophagy encouraging chemotherapy's cytotoxicity bringing about apoptosis | [101] |
| Magnetic iron nanoparticles | PEI | – | 25.1 mV 26.3 nm | In vitro | HeLa cells | Increasing ROS concentrations ATG7 up regulation and activation of the Akt/mTOR axis triggering autophagy | [102] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles | Selenium | Laminarin Chloroquine | 60 nm | In vitro | HepG2 cells | causing cancer cells to undergo both autophagy and apoptosis Up regulating p62 and LC3-II in the induction of autophagy Using chloroquine to block autophagy causes cell death | [103] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles | Selenium | – | 30 nm | In vitro | HCT116 cells | Beclin-1 up regulation Activating autophagy in cancer cells to accelerate their demise | [104] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles (PLGA and succinate) | – | Doxorubicin Chloroquine | – | In vitro | A549 cells | doxorubicin's protection via autophagy inhibition and improved nuclear translocation of this chemotherapy drug | [105] |
| Polystyrene nanoparticles | Amino groups | – | +37 to − 56.7 mV | In vitro | OVCAR3 cells | Autophagy inhibition increases anti-tumour action that exhibits time- and concentration-dependent behaviour. | [106] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles | PEI PLGA | Paclitaxel | +21.7 mV 80 nm | In vitro | U251 cells | Preventing the growth and invasion of cancerous cells LC3-II and autophagosome accumulation are important in initiating autophagy. | [107] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles | – | HGFK1 Sorafenib | +6.68 mV 106.67 nm | In vitro In vivo | 786-O, and ACHN cells Xenograft mouse model | inhibiting the development of tumours enhancing the survival of mice demonstrating the combinatorial effects of sorafenib reducing sorafenib-mediated autophagy by HGFK1 administration | [108] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles | PLGA | Curcumin GANT61 | 213.3 mV 190–400 nm | In vitro | MCF-7 cells | reducing the ability of cancer stem cells to self-renew lowering the survival of cancer cells by inducing both autophagy and apoptosis | [109] |
| Selenium nanoparticles | – | – | 27.5 nm | In vitro | MCF-7 cells | Selenium nanoparticles and radiation have a synergistic effect by inducing autophagy and raising ROS levels. | [110] |
| Lipid nanoparticles | – | – | +29.8 mV Up to 136 nm | In vitro | Hela cells | Bcl-2 expression is down regulated during endoplasmic stress to initiate autophagy. | [111] |
| Au–Ag nanoparticles | Polydopamine | – | 200 nm | In vitro In vivo | T24 cells Xenograft model | Delivering photo-thermal treatment and raising ROS concentrations Activating the ERK and Akt signaling pathway promoting both apoptosis and autophagy | [112] |
| Au nanoparticles | Valine | – | −29 mV 20 nm | In vitro In vivo | MDA-mB-231 cells Mouse model | Increasing ROS concentrations Activating autophagy Applying cytotoxicity to cancerous cells | [113] |
| Au nanoparticles | – | Quercetin | −19.1 mV 106.7 nm | In vitro In vivo | U87 cells Nude mice | decreasing cell viability in a way depending on concentration and time suppressing the expression of PI3K/Akt and mTOR Up regulation of ERK and LC3-II triggering autophagy | [114] |
| Super-paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles | – | AGO2 MiRNA-3765B | −20 mV 70 nm | In vitro In vivo | MCF7 and MDA-MB-453 cells Xenograft nude mice | demonstrating anti-tumour action and increasing cisplatin's cytotoxicity against cancer cells suppression of autophagy lowering the expressions of ATG4C and Beclin-1 | [115] |
| Zinc oxide nanoparticles | – | – | 20 nm | In vitro | SKOV3 cells | Cancer cell viability declining p53 and LC3 up regulation Encouragement of autophagy | [116] |
| Zinc oxide nanoparticles | – | – | −5.01 mV 172 nm | In vitro In vivo | MCF-7 cells Animal models of 4 T1 tumour cells | Increasing ROS concentrations Increasing ATG5 Activating autophagy | [117] |
| Hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles | – | Hydroxychloroquine | +41.15 to − 26.50 mV 48.8 nm | In vitro In vivo | HCT116 cells Xenograft model | Growing hydroxy-chloroquine intracellular accumulation preventing autophagy as a means of promoting survival Increasing radiation's cytotoxicity for cancer treatment | [118] |
| Silica nanoparticles | – | – | 86 nm | In vitro | HCT116 cells | Colon cancer treatment via influencing the endoplasmic reticulum to induce autophagy raising the LC3-II levels | [119] |
| Mesoporous silica nanoparticles | Poly-dopamine | Chloroquine Glucose consumer glucose oxidase | Up to 235 nm | In vitro In vivo | HepG2 cells Tumour bearing mice | The malnutrition that GOx causes in cancer cells Providing photo-thermal treatment Increasing the potential for autophagy inhibition to decrease cancer by fasting and photo-thermal treatment | [120] |
| Cuprous oxide nanoparticles | – | – | – | In vitro In vivo | J82, T24, 5637, UMUC-3 cells Xenografts | Causing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest; decreasing the survival of cancer cells in a way depending on time and concentration To increase apoptotic cell death, ERK signaling up regulation and autophagy activation are important. | [121] |
| TiO2 nanoparticles | – | 5-Fluorouracil | 20–30 nm | In vitro | AGS cells | Raising ROS levels causing lysosomal function disruptions inhibiting autophagy encouraging chemotherapy's cytotoxicity bringing about apoptosis | [122] |