Table 1.

Research questions, with blockchain shown to be a main driver for technological disruption

Topic	Research questions*
Current challenges	Given an aging population and a dearth of healthcare professionals, how can adequate healthcare provision be ensured? How can collaboration between key stakeholders in the healthcare sector be promoted? What is the current state of legislation/regulation, and in what ways does it foster or inhibit the introduction of blockchain technology? How can the counterfeiting of medications be eliminated or reduced? What is the current state of healthcare systems [in different countries] and in what way does it take into account patients’ requirements? What is the current state of data privacy in healthcare systems? What are the main factors that drive the adoption of healthcare systems from a patient’s perspective? What is the awareness among patients regarding the use of personal information within the healthcare system?
Stakeholders and legal environment	How are the respective stakeholders in the healthcare system impacted by the introduction of blockchain-based solutions? What changes in the current legal/regulatory framework are needed in case blockchain-based solutions are introduced?
Patients: Trust and privacy	What are the perceptions among patients regarding the use of their personal data in healthcare systems? How can a machine-to-everything economy in the healthcare space be designed that works in the best interest of patients? How can healthcare systems be designed to balance the privacy needs of patients with the easy availability of information?
Patients: Expected benefits	What is the level of subjective empowerment among patients pertaining to the use of their data in healthcare systems? Can tokenization facilitate the sharing of sensitive patient information? What cost savings are possible in blockchain-based healthcare systems and how can the patients benefit from these savings?
Data: Integrity	How can blockchain be applied to design and develop systems that offer data integrity? Who are the important stakeholders in patient healthcare data, and how can they access data in case of need, including for care coordination?
Data: Security	Which blockchain core properties impact the security of patient data? How can systems be designed with a focus on healthcare data security?
Data: Interoperability	What is the role of legislation and regulation when it comes to the interoperability of blockchain-based healthcare systems? How can healthcare data systems be designed that communicate and interact seamlessly?
Data: Sharing and transfer	Can the transfer of sensitive patient data be replaced by allowing access to a blockchain-based system on a case-by-case basis? How can blockchain-based systems be aligned with national rules and legislation when it comes to the sharing and transfer of patient data?
Future topics	How can patient identity be ensured? Can blockchain contribute to the design and development of self-sovereign identity in healthcare management? How can NFTs be applied to streamline existing applications (either patient related or medication related)? What are patients’ perceptions of blockchain-based healthcare data systems? What are patients’ expectations of blockchain-based healthcare data systems?

“How” questions indicate that a design science approach might be adequate, with the goal of designing and developing systems that demonstrate the viability of a specific idea or approach. NFTs: nonfungible data.