Table 2.
Summary of neuroimaging studies reviewed that used the Stop-Signal Task in bipolar disorder.
| Study | Sample, mood state, subtype [% female; mean (SD) age] |
Task Characteristics | Main behavioral findings |
Neuroimaging contrast | Main neuroimaging findings [activation in BD relative to HC unless otherwise specified] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stop Signal Task in BD during euthymia | |||||
| (Leibenluft, 2007) | -26 children with BD (subtype not specified, 5 hypomanic, 21 euthymic; 15 had comorbid ADHD) [54%; 13.6 (2.6)] -17 HC [47%; 14.6 (1.8)] |
SST, adjusted SSD | No difference in SSRT | -stop incorrect vs go trials -stop correct vs stop incorrect trials | -Stop incorrect vs go: ↓bilateral caudate, putamen, accumbens, and right ventral PFC -Stop correct vs stop incorrect: ↑right ventral PFC -BD with ADHD had ↑right putamen and right ACC than BD without ADHD |
| Weathers et al. (2012) | -16 Child BD (13 BD-I, 3 BD-II; 12 euthymic, 4 hypomanic) [50%; 14.65 (2.19)] -23 Adult BD (14 BD-I, 9 BD-II; 11 euthymic, 8 depressed, 1 hypomanic, 1 mixed) [69.6%; 40.85 (11.81)] -21 Child HC [42.9%;13.79 (1.97)] -29 Adult HC [62.1%; 35.18 (8.06)] |
SST, adjusted SSD | -BD had lower accuracy than HC -No difference in SSRT |
-stop-incorrect vs go -stop-correct vs go -stop-correct vs stop-incorrect |
-Stop-incorrect vs Go: child BD had the lowest activation in ACC; adult BD had ↑left ACC than adult HC -Stop-correct vs go: BD had trend toward ↓nucleus accumbens (p = 0.06 after correction), BD had ↓left VLPFC compared with HC -Stop-correct vs stop-incorrect: no difference between groups |
| Deveney et al. (2012b) | -32 BD; 28 BD-I, 4 BD-II; 19 euthymic, 9 hypomanic, 1 manic, 2 mixed [53%; 14.2 (2.5)] 21 HC [38%; 13.8 (2.0)] |
SST, adjusted SSD | No difference in SSRT or accuracy on stop trials | -stop correct minus go -stop correct minus stop incorrect -stop incorrect minus go |
-stop incorrect minus go: ↓right ACC and right nucleus accumbens |
| Deveney et al. (2012a) | -19 youths with BD euthymic, 17 BD-I, 2 BD-II [63.2%, 14.76 (2.9)] -13 at-familial-risk youths [53.8%; 13.46 (1.8)] -21 HC [38.1%; 13.78 (2.0)] |
SST, adjusted SSD | No difference in SSRT or accuracy on stop trials | -stop incorrect vs stop correct -stop correct vs go -stop incorrect vs go |
-stop correct versus go: no difference between groups -stop incorrect vs stop correct: at risk and BD had ↑left putamen than HC -stop incorrect vs go: at-risk had ↑bilateral putamen compared with HC; at-risk had ↑right putamen compared with BD; BD had ↓right nucleus accumbens compared with HC and at-risk |
| Tsujii et al. (2018) (fNIR study) | -21 BD-I (mean mild HAMD and remitted YMRS) [57.1%; 36.9 (10.2)] -20 SZ [55%; 33.6 (8.7)] -18 HC [55.6%]; 36.6 (10.7)] |
SST, adjusted SSD | -SZ had longer SSRT than HC -No difference between BD and HC -No difference between BD and SZ |
SST vs pre-task | -BD and SZ had ↓bilateral middle frontal, inferior frontal, and superior frontal gyri compared with HC -BD had ↓middle temporal and superior temporal gyri compared with SZ and HC -Greater SSRT was correlated with reduced oxygenated haemoglobin in the right IFC and superior frontal gyrus. |
| (Cao, 2022)(Leibenluft, 2007) | -49 BD-I (mood state not specified) [43%; 35.3 (9.0)] -89 HC [45%; 35.0 (8.1)] |
SST, adjusted SSD | -No difference in % successful stops | -successful stop and unsuccessful stop vs go | -No group difference in activation |
| Kopf et al. (2019) (NIRS study)* | -36 BD (subtype not specified) depressed, 15 of which were re-assessed after remission [47.2%; 42 (11.2)] -30 HC [66.7%; 42.3 (10.7)] |
SST and Go/No-Go Task combined, adjusted SSD | -BD depressed had longer SSRT than HC -When BD remitted, no difference in SSRT from HC |
ANOVA with levels go, no-go, successful inhibition, unsuccessful inhibition | -During successful inhibition, remitted BD had ↓bilateral prefrontal cortex |
| Stop Signal Task in BD during a mood episode | |||||
| Strakowski et al. (2008) | -16 BD-I in first manic or mixed episode [25%; 19 (4)] -16 HC [44%; 20 (4)] |
-SST -no adjustment of SSD |
No difference in % correct stops | correct stops vs nontargets | -↓left ACC, medial dorsal thalamus, precuneus, and left middle temporal gyrus -↑de-activation in bilateral posterior cingulate -BD had prefrontal activation in BA10 that was not observed in HC |
| Cerullo et al. (2009) | -11 adolescent BD-I manic [64%; 14.2 (1.5)] -10 ADHD 30%; 14.0 (2.0)] -13 HC [46%; 14.5 (1.9)] |
CPT-X with stop signal, no adjustment of SSD | No difference in total accuracy | correct stops vs correct nonresponse to nontargets | -↓cerebellar vermis, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, amygdala, postcentral gyrus, precentral gyrus, fusiform gyrus, inferior temporal gyrus -↑middle and superior temporal gyrus -Compared with ADHD, BD had ↓superior temporal gyrus, insula, cuneus, posterior cingulate, middle occipital gyrus, lingual gyrus |
| Passarotti et al. (2010) | -15 BD (5 BD-I manic, 5 BD-1 mixed, 5 BD-II hypomanic) [53%; 13.2 (2.65)] -11 ADHD [45%; 13.09 (2.7)] -15 HC [53%; 14.13 (3.16)] |
-SST -no adjustment of SSD |
BD had lower accuracy on go and stop trials than HC | stop vs go condition | -↓right medial and left middle frontal gyrus, left inferior/middle frontal gyrus, right pregenual ACC -↑left superior temporal gyrus and inferior parietal lobule and right posterior cingulate cortex -Compared with ADHD, BD had ↑bilateral IFC/VLPFC, bilateral middle frontal gyrus and DLPFC, right superior frontal gyrus, right middle temporal cortex, left posterior cingulate gyrus -Compared with ADHD, BD had ↓occipital cortex and left postcentral gyrus |
| Pavuluri et al. (2010) | -13 BD; 8 BD-I, 5 BBD-II, mixed, manic, or hypomanic [23%; 14.4 (2.2)] -13 HC [70%; 14.4 (2.8)] |
-SST -SSD at 250, 350, and 450 ms with equal probability |
-No difference in accuracy for Go or Stop trials | Stop vs go condition | -↓Left IFG, bilateral medial frontal gyrus, right middle frontal gyrus -↑bilateral motor cingulate, right ventral premotor cortex and striatum |
| Kopf et al. (2019) (NIRS study)* | -36 BD (subtype not specified) depressed, 15 of which were re-assessed after remission [47.2%; 42 (11.2)] -30 HC [66.7%; 42.3 (10.7)] |
SST and Go/No-Go Task combined, adjusted SSD | -BD depressed had longer SSRT than HC -When BD remitted, no difference in SSRT from HC |
ANOVA with levels go, no-go, successful inhibition, unsuccessful inhibition | -No difference between depressed BD and HC -During successful inhibition, remitted BD had ↓in left prefrontal cortex than during their depressed state. |
*
This study followed BD patients during depression and re-assessed them after remission; BD=bipolar disorder; HC=healthy controls; SST=Stop Signal Task; SSD=Stop Signal Delay; NIRS=near infrared spectroscopy; PFC=prefrontal cortex; ACC=anterior cingulate cortex; IFC=inferior frontal cortex; VLPFC=ventrolateral prefrontal cortex; DLPFC=dorsolateral prefrontal cortex