Table 2.
Lifestyle habits and their influence on autophagy.
| Lifestyle habit | Effectors | Influence on autophagy | Main outcomes of the autophagy | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mediterranean Diet | Fruits, vegetables, fish, rice, olive oil and eggs | Stimulation | Anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, improved cardiovascular health and enhanced brain function | 203-205 |
| Calorie restriction | Reduced energy intake. Adequate nutrition |
Stimulation by decreasing mTOR signalling and activation of AMPK | Increase of fat mobilization, oxidation, metabolic flexibility, insulin sensitivity and redox imbalance Reduction in systemic inflammation, cardiovascular risks and body weight Anti-aging |
196, 210-212, 214-220 |
| Intermittent fasting | Periodic cycles of eating and fasting | 196, 213-220 | ||
| Physical activity | Increases FOXO, TFEB, AMPK or ROS levels and AMP/ATP ratio |
Activate autophagy in skeletal muscle | Regulation of glucose, protein synthesis, muscle mass maintenance and exercise performance Attenuate aging-associated autophagic dysfunctions leading to neurodegeneration |
225-234 |
| Sleep deprivation | Autophagy machinery (BECN1, LC3 and p62) | Impairment of the levels of ATG proteins in hippocampus and striatum | Autophagy dysfunction is associated with neurodegenerative and behavioral alterations, all linked to REM sleep loss. Propofol and modafinil improve cognitive function loss by sleep deprivation in rodent models |
243-252 |
| Tobacco | Egr-1 Bicaudal D1, p62, galectin 8, NDP52 |
Induction of autophagy Defective autophagosome maturation |
Accumulation of bicaudal D1, p62 and autophagosomes Development of COPD |
255-258 |
| Alcohol consumption | Ethanol metabolites | Stimulation (Acute) Inhibition (Chronic) |
Chronic consumption leads to ALD. Autophagy is a protective response against acute ethanol induced steatosis and liver injury. Chronic consumption inhibits autophagy and induces apoptosis |
262-266 |
| Air pollution | Particulate matter | Stimulation | PM2.5-induced oxidative stress PM2.5 leads to accumulation of LC3 and overexpression of BECN1 and ATG5 Impairment in lung function Skin aging |
267-269 |
| Sunlight exposure | UVA-induced ROS | Stimulation or impairment | Skin photoaging and cancer | 272-279 |
| Psychosocial stress | BECN1, LC3II, FKBP51 | Stimulation (acute) Impairment (chronic) |
Promotes adaptive emotional outcomes (acute) Gradual decline in synaptic function and neurodegeneration (chronic) Exacerbate IBD, gut microbiota dysbiosis and inflammation Antidepressants reverse the psychological consequences of chronic stress via mTOR. |
280-286 |