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. 2024 Apr 25;15:1388574. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1388574

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Copyright © 2024 Li, Lu, Chen and Zhu

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Functions of EVs in developing pre-metastatic microenvironment. EVs derived from antigen presenting cells (APCs) can also activate CD8⁺and CD4⁺ T cells. Exosomes carrying PD-L1 promoted tumor growth and reduced the number of T cells in the spleen and lymph nodes in mouse experiments. Integrins (ITGs) fuse with target cells in a tissue-specific manner to direct organ-specific colonization. Tumour-secreted CEMIP⁺ exosomes uptaked by brain endothelial and microglial cells, upregulating the pro-inflammatory cytokines encoded by Ptgs2, Tnf and Ccl/Cxcl, promote brain vascular remodelling and metastasis. Human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs)-derived exosomes induce the elevated S100A16 in SCLC brain metastasis, and the S100A16-mediated protective effect is related to the up-regulation of prohibitin (PHB)-1.