Figure 1.

Akkermansia muciniphila is involved in mucin production by goblet cells independent on type 2 immunity.

Intestinal epithelial cells trigger the production of type 2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13) in response to helminths. Mucus production by goblet cells is induced by type 2 cytokines. Type 2 immunity limits helminth infections and can result in their physical expulsion from the mucosal membranes where the helminth resides. In addition, the gut microbiota may contribute to mucus-producing goblet cell function during deworming. Although A. muciniphila cannot affect type 2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13) production, A. muciniphila can improve intestinal mucin production, indicating the presence of an alternative type 2 immunity-independent mechanism for the mucin-promoting function of A. muciniphila. However, the mechanisms have not yet been elucidated.