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. 2024 May 13;22:248. doi: 10.1186/s12951-024-02526-0

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 3 — Principal pathways to overcome the BBB. A Scheme of the neurovascular unit of BBB constituted of pericytes, astrocytes, and endothelial cells. B The main mechanism of crossing through BBB: a) tight junctions restricting the pass of water-soluble compounds, b) carrier-mediated transport, [c] lipid-soluble agents, d) receptor-mediated endocytosis and transcytosis, e) adsorptive-mediated endocytosis and transcytosis, f) the efflux pump expulses the drugs from the endothelial cells to the blood, g) Cytochrome P450 enzymes. Adapted with permission from Ref. [126].

Copyright 2015, with permission from Dove Medical Press Limited. C Anatomical features of the intranasal route involved in nose-to-brain drug delivery. Adapted with permission from Ref. [133]. Copyright 2022, with permission from Elsevier