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. 2024 May 3;15:1365554. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1365554

Table 1.

Effects of the gut microbiota and microbiota-derived metabolites on the immune system.

Microbiota/Metabolites Immune cells Effects/Mechanisms Ref.
Lactobacillus sakei K040706 NK cell

  • Increasing NK cell activity in the spleen;

  • Promoting the maturation of the spleen germinal center

 (36)
Listeria monocytogenes Macrophage

  • Driving the proliferation of yolk sac-derived macrophages;

  • Influencing the development of stable bone marrow cells;

  • Regulating CCR2;

  • Influencing macrophage homing from the periphery to the gut and development

 (37, 38)
Segmented
filamentous bacteria 		T cell

  • Inducing RORγt+Th17 cells in GALT

 (39)
Bacteroides fragilis T cell

  • Secreting polysaccharide A;

  • Stimulating IL-10 production by CD4+Treg cells

 (40)
Lactobacillus
Sutterella
Klebsiella 		B cell

  • Promoting naïve B cells to differentiate into regulatory B cells in mesenteric lymph nodes;

  • Producing ATP;

  • Activating P2X and P2Y of DC;

  • Inducing IL-6 and TGF-β production;

  • Promoting type arrangement and secretion of IgA

 (41)
Bacillus polyfermenticus NK cell

  • Activating DCs and NK cells;

  • Expanding NK cell pool and increasing cytotoxicity;

  • Amplifying type I response;

  • Promoting IFN-γ secretion by NK cells

 (42, 43)
Lactobacillus
Bifidobacterium 		T cell

  • Inducing CD4+CD25+FoxP3+Treg cells

 (44)
SCFAs ILC1

  • Increasing the number of ILC1

 (45)
SCFAs ILC3

  • Activating aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR);

  • Promoting IL-22 production

 (34)
SCFAs T cell

  • Regulating the differentiation of CD4+T cells;

  • Inducing the generation of Treg cells;

  • Promoting IL-10 production by Th1 cells;

  • Promoting the expression of FOXP3;

  • Negatively regulating the differentiation of Th9 cells;

  • Inhibiting the secretion of IL-9;

  • Inhibiting histone deacetylase activity;

  • Reducing IL-17a secretion

 (44, 46–50)
SCFAs

  • Promoting cell metabolism;

  • Boosting the memory capacity of activated CD8+T cells;

  • Regulating the gene expression of CD8+T cells and Tc17 cells;

  • Promoting IFN-γ and granzyme B secretion;

  • Promoting molecular switch of Tc17 cells to CTL phenotype

 (51, 52)
SCFAs B cell

  • Activating intestinal epithelial cells through GPR41 and GPR43 receptors;

  • Promoting the secretion of TSLP and inflammatory factors;

  • Inducing IgA production by B cells;

  • Regulating B cell differentiation;

  • Inhibiting autoantibodies;

 (53, 54)
SCFAs DCs

  • Inhibiting LPS-induced maturation of DCs

  • Down-regulating the expression of CD80, CD83 and MHC Class II molecules;

  • Enhancing endocytosis;

  • Reducing the release of CCL3, CCL4 and CXCL9;

  • Increasing the expression of IL-10 and IL-23 and inhibiting the production of IL-12 and IFN-γ

 (55–57)
SCFAs Macrophage

  • Inducing the secretion of NO, IL-6 and IL-12p40 in a dose-dependent manner;

  • Enhancing histone H3 acetylation by acting as an HDAC inhibitor;

  • Promoting the synthesis of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10

 (58, 59)